Catch 22

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Insanity in Catch

In all of history, no war seems to have touched the minds of people everywhere as much as World War II. This war brought about some of the worst violations of human rights ever seen. The German military created a system for the public to follow, and if the individual opposed, he was oppressed. This kind of mentality is presented in the novel, Catch- (155). Joseph Heller uses the insane situations of the setting and his characters to show a unique perspective on World War II.

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A small Army Air Corps base serves as the setting for Catch-. It is set on a fictitious island called Pianosa. The island is described as very small and is located in the Mediterranean Sea, off the coast of Elba, Italy. It is set in the time of World War II. The island almost serves as a microcosm of the war taking place around it. This setting accommodates nearly all of the hardships being faced by the victims of WWII. The Air Corps dominates this island and its soldier inhabitants. A system is established and it must be obeyed by all the soldiers. This system is kepy alive through a catch-.

Basically the catch- is a trap set up by the military bureaucracy to keep all of the soldiers flying in battle. It is best summed up in a piece of dialogue from the novel. It is shared between the main character, Yossarian, and the bases doctor, Daneeka Yossarian looked at him soberly and tried another approach. Is Orr crazy? He sure is, Doc Daneeka said. Can you ground him? I sure can. But first he has to ask me to. Thats part of the rule. Then why doesnt he ask you to? Because hes crazy, Doc Daneeka said. He has to be crazy to keep flying combat missions after all the close calls hes had. Sure I can ground him. But first he has to ask me to. And then you can ground him? Yossarian asked. No. Then I cant ground him. You mean theres a catch? Sure theres a catch, Doc Daneeka replied. Catch-. Anyone who wants to get out of combat duty isnt really crazy. ( Heller, 46)

This bureaucratic trap is accepted by most of the naive soldiers. This is why the military is able to make the soldiers do whatever they want them to do. The characters are persuaded to believe in the system rather than oppose it. Yossarian seems to be the only one who sees the insanity of this situation. This scenario is almost like the one initiated by Adolph Hitler in Germany at this time. Hitler saw the people of Germany as impressionable and easily swayed. He used propaganda to make them do whatever he wanted. It was through this course of action that 6 million Jewish people were mass murdered. Heller makes it all the more ironic that this same kind of mentality is being used by the American military in his novel, and he projects his attitude towards war through this irony. Heller portrays the military as a self-contradictory and oppressive force. He sees the military as taking away a soldiers individuality. The struggle for individuality by each character is evident throughout the novel. Their experiences make the scenario believable to the reader.

Each character represents an attitude in the system. Milo Minderbinder and Colonel Cathcart are great representatives of the military. To them, the soldiers are seen as tools to further their careers. Milo Minderbinder, a military authority figure, is in charge of business decisions made during the war. He uses his powers to create a syndicate called the M&M syndicate. Its purpose is to profit any way it can off the war. In the process, Milo increases his own personal wealth. Milos business tactics are ridiculous as well. At one point, he suggests the soldiers eat chocolate-covered cotton he received from Egypt in order to cut back on food expenses. In another instance, he trades all of the mens silk parachutes for eggs. His tactics often endanger the soldiers lives. The most outrageous of his schemes occurs when he orders the bombing of his own base in order to fulfill his end of a bargain with the Germans. Milo could also represent the element of greed in WWII. When Hitler dominated Germany, his mastery obsession wasnt satisfied. His sights were set on ruling the entire world. Milo poses as a representation of this kind of greed in the story.

Colonel Cathcart, the main decision-maker of the base, also exploits the troops, but for different reasons. He wants to use the soldiers to advance his own rank. Like Milo, he has no problem with putting his soldiers lives in danger ;in fact, he purposely sends his men on the most dangerous missions. He does this so his superiors will be impressed. He hopes that will result in promotion. He constantly raises the number of missions the troops have to fly; therefore, he keeps the catch activated. Yossarian is the main character. He is the one who rebels against the system. He tries to stay out of combat as much as he can. He resorts to insane behavior such as refusing to wear clothing, etc. Yossarian shows that the only sane response to the system is to act insane. Belief in the importance of human life is one thing that keeps him alive throughout the chaos. He sympathizes with his fellow soldiers and tries to maintain their individuality as well as his own. Yossarian feels he is the only one that sees the horrifying nature of the system and becomes separated from it. The system eventually overcomes Yossarian and he is forced to end it all by jumping in a small boat; attempting to row to neutral Sweden. This kind of behavior was typical during WWII. Some soldiers could not endure the hardships of war and were forced to resort to irrational methods to cope with it. Some committed suicide, others avoided combat by abandoning their squadrons. Whatever the circumstance, WWII was an insane time for nearly all the world. Hellers situations presented in the setting and the use of his characters create a unique perspective of societys reaction to war. His attitudes of war are evident throughout the novel. He wanted to paint a picture of the absurdity of battle and mans behavior during it. Many acts of absurdity occurred during this war, and most of them are portrayed in this setting and through these characters. This work is truly a reflection of our own mentality in a time of insanity.

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Why are Preferred Shares called ¡§preferred'?

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Why are Preferred Shares called ¡§preferred'?

Explain why some portfolio managers consider them more like a fixed income product than an equity security.

Describe a situation wherein an investor in preferred shares might enjoy capital appreciation from his/her investments.

Why are Preferred Shares called ¡§preferred'?

Preferred shares are called 'preferred' because they give preferential treatment to the shareholder with regards to dividend payouts and asset allocation priority in the event of the company's dissolution.These characteristics are known as the preference as to assets, and the preference as to dividends clauses built into every preferred share.Secondly, I would also imagine that this name was given to the product, because of the advantageous position the company sometimes takes when they issue these shares, thus making the company prefer to issue these shares over bonds and sometimes common shares.

Unlike bonds, the company is not legally obligated to pay out dividends, and thus can use these products to their great benefit when times are tough.Also, unlike common shareholders, preferred shareholders do not generally have any voting rights ¡V unless the company misses 6 or more consecutive quarterly dividend payouts ¡V which again benefit the company because this gives the Board of Directors the chance to run the company the way they see fit.

Explain why some portfolio managers consider them more like a fixed income product than an equity security.

The key factor which endorses this popular viewpoint is that preferred shares offer a fixed dividend payment.This, of course, is not an official notion, because preferred shares represent ownership in a corporation and thus have to be grouped along with other 'equity' securities.Unlike common shares, preferred shares generally do not participate in the companys growth. The dividend is typically decided upon at the time of the offering and remains fixed until maturity, or until the shares are sold back to the company.

The company does not have to uphold the dividends as a legal requirement, similar to interest payments on bonds.If the companys directors decide to skip the payment of a preferred share dividend, there is little the preferred shareholder can do about it.As a general rule of thumb, the common shareholders would not receive any dividends at all until the preferred shareholders are given what they are entitled too.In most cases, the preferred shares will come with a clause stating that an 'arrears' will be created to fund any missed dividend payments for the preferred shareholders.

The other major reason why preferred shares are considered to be fixed-income investments is because their value tends to be influenced by changes in interest rates, much like fixed-income securities such as bonds. A fall in interest rates will tend to boost the value of bonds and preferred shares due to the shorthanded rates given to the newer issues, and vice-versa.

Although preferred shares do not offer the same potential for capital growth as common shares, they usually pay a much higher dividend that does not fluctuate. For these reasons, preferred shares are very attractive to conservative, income-oriented investors.

Describe a situation wherein an investor in preferred shares might enjoy capital appreciation from his/her investments.

Considering that a preferred share is a hybrid security, having some of the characteristics of a common share and some characteristics of a bond, it is safe to assume that under certain conditions the shareholder can expect capital gains over and above his preset dividend.

The first situation which could produce a capital gain for a preferred shareholder is if his/her shares have the 'Convertible' feature.These 'convertible' preferred shares allow the investor to convert the preferred shares into some other class of shares, usually the company's common shares at a fixed price within a specified period.Generally, the company will set the preferred share issue price at a slight premium to the conversion value, and also include a timeframe in which the shareholder is not allowed to convert the preferred share.The capital gain happens when

Ex

„XABC Company Series A preferred shares are convertible into 1. common shares after the holding period of 1 year.

„XOn April 15th 001, ABC common shares were trading at $17.5.At this price the preferred shares are worth at least $0.75 ($17.5 x 1.).On April 15th 001 the preferred shares are selling for $ (slight premium on the calculated value of $0.75).

„XBy April 15th 00 (when the holding period is over), the common shares have risen in price by 15% to $1.84.

„XIf the shareholder decides to convert the preferred shares into common shares at the pre-stated ratio of 11. his common shares will now be worth $.81 ($1.84 x 1.).

„XHenceforth, the shareholder will earn a capital gain of $1.81 per share ($.81 - $).

The second scenario, in which preferred shareholders can earn capital gains, is if the shares come with a 'participating' feature.This gives the shareholder a certain share of the company's net profits over and above the specified dividend rate.

The last feature which could lead to a capital gain on a preferred share is called 'redeemable'.This clause allows the company to redeem the shares within a specified time period.When the shares are redeemed, the holder of the preferred shares receives a premium on the par value of the shares thus creating a capital gain.

In conclusion, preferred shares can be a very interesting product for people, whom desire steady income from their investments and are willing to take on a little more risk than with a product such as a GIC.The key to selecting these shares ¡V much like anything else in the markets ¡V is to do your homework and understand every feature which comes with the issue; and, weigh those features against the current interest rates, the company's credibility and the issue price.

Please note that this sample paper on Why are Preferred Shares called ¡§preferred'? is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Why are Preferred Shares called ¡§preferred'?, we are here to assist you.Your cheap custom college paper on Why are Preferred Shares called ¡§preferred'? will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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What is monogamy? and how can it be beneficial to couples?

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The holidays are a time for giving, sharing and spreading as much love as you can. After doing much research I've found that where relationships are concerned it's good to be selfish sometimes. In other words share your goods with too many people and your eyes will be in for a black Christmas. The point I'm trying to make deals with the concept of monogamy. Is monogamy really the best thing where relationships are concerned? Many believe that it is though the numbers tell a different story.

Monogamy refers to the practice of restricting your number of sexual partners to one single partner. There must be a lapse in time between old relationships and new ones. If a brief overlapping period occurs this is called serial monogamy. This is opposed to polyamory or the term made famous by Austin Powers 'swinging'.

The neologism polyamory means having multiple loves. This consists of non-possessive relationships with more than one partner at a time. This is common in the modern concept of open relationships. It does not necessarily occur during marriage, hence the reason for not calling it polygamy. Swinging, however involves no emotional bond as some polyamorous relationships do. The practice of swinging usually involves one or both partners of a couple having casual sex behind the backs of their main love. This usually results in the splitting up of couples and in Trinidad the ingestion of poisonous substances and or murder.

Now that we know of the damage that many non-monogamous relationships cause, why does it remain a permanent fixture in society? Some claim that monogamists have what is called a tragic case of internalized homophobia. This basically means that people are aping heterosexual norms such as marriage in order to feel normal. This is because they view monogamy to be the only ethical choice. After all, monogamy is as old as Adam.

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It is not wise however to attack monogamy from a biblical stand point. For the apostle Paul says "Every thing is permissible'-but not everything is beneficial." Human nature dictates that as long as there is wild sex involved everything is beneficial. The point should be taken though, that every action no matter how good it may seem has a consequence. If you decide to partake in a non-monogamous relationship, make sure everyone involved knows.

Christianity has left itself in a quagmire regarding the notion of two person relationships itself in the first place. This is because it is unclear when or why exactly it became wrong to have multiple partners. It was not uncommon for Catholic priests to have multiple wives and mistresses. In 76AD, a man could take another mistress if his wife was sick as long as he looked after her. Due to stipulations regarding church inheritance, it was deemed that all sons of priests were illegitimate. Popes proceeded to ban, and then void all existing marriages to priests. Hence a vow of celibacy was taken by many priests.

Other religions have had light stances on the idea of monogamy. Muslims according to Islamic law have the ability to have multiple wives. Each wife shares in the daily wifely duties along with the others. The husband equally divides his time and love to all of his wives.

Monogamy has also been a key word wherever health issues and sex is concerned. It is recommended that in order to be safe from STD's and other health issues one should stay in a trusting monogamous relationship. Polyfidelity (Restricting your self to one group of people) can provide similar protection if everyone stays within the bounds of the group and healthy before joining.

The main reason I saw for having a monogamous relationship has to do with raising children. It is evident that in order to have well brought up, healthy children, two parents are better than one. I'm not saying that people who partake in polygamous relationships shun their fraternal responsibilities, but it would be easier if they were monogamous. Having your kid grow up around different people all the time may shed new light on the term "Who's Your Daddy." At least make sure he knows the answer in the true sense of the phrase.

Many people do not classify homosexual relationships as being monogamous. Stigma surrounding homosexuals cause many to believe that they are sex-crazed freaks who go about having sex randomly with whoever is willing. Some on the other hand do not even look at homosexuals as having relationships, but more so a vice. This is because there is little jurisdiction in favor of Gay marriage world wide and common perceptions are made based on law.

Speaking of law, some tribes and even small countries around the globe, have denounced all matter of non-monogamous dealings. It is believed that the immorality of polygamy is one way of bringing down society. These accusations are believed by non-monogamists to be so trite, that it can also be perceived that the people who created those laws are jealous because they lack the mojo to get any.

All in all monogamy seems to be soon a thing of the past as rates decline worldwide. Values are changing constantly; hence it is more common to see open relationships on the mainstream. Men seem to have a slight edge on women in the number of non-monogamous relationships they are a part of. Gay people (Lesbians included) have a slight edge on both men and women in terms of this mild form of promiscuity.

Though the basis of it being morally wrong is the major stumbling block in abandoning monogamy altogether, it seems that monogamy may still have some merit. Children's lives are stake, as well as the general sanity of those you love. STD's can be prevented if one enters the monogamous relationship 'clean', however, with the proper precautions it can also be prevented otherwise. So swing at your own risk. Remember though that when you swing high, a low's bound to come.

Please note that this sample paper on what is monogamy? and how can it be beneficial to couples? is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on what is monogamy? and how can it be beneficial to couples?, we are here to assist you.Your cheap custom college paperson what is monogamy? and how can it be beneficial to couples? will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Hobbes Vs. Neitzche

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Hobbesian Fright Vs. Neitzschean Might

Human Nature's Influence on Morality

Nathan Pang

408-5-605

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Given the options of defending either Neitzsche's, or Hobbes's radical views on morality, I must conclude that Neitzsche's concept of the "Will to Power" is, despite the controversy of the concept of slave morality, at heart the more correct view on the origin of human nature and morality than Hobbes's theory of Psychological Egoism. Hobbes's claim that all men are equal is an absurd place to begin an argument, whereas Neitzsche is more in touch with the reality of the hierarchy of human existence.

Hobbes's theory of psychological egoism is a concept that believes that all men are motivated by desire for pleasure, and avoidance of pain. However, since he believes that the "natural state" of mankind is a state of war, in which everyman is willing to kill another man solely for the purpose of acquiring what he may possess, the fear of death at the hands of our rivals prevents us from attaining any meaningful happiness. Therefore, Hobbes concludes, the root of all morality is in the creation of an unwritten "social contract", in which all men cooperate in order to attain a greater good by means of empowering a "sovereign" to maintain order, and uphold society's rules through the threat of force. Because after all, according to Hobbes, the fear of harm is the driving force in human existence.

Neitzsche's equally bleak interpretation of human existence, states that it is not the desire for pleasure and the fear of pain that drives men, but the "Will to Power". The "Will to Power" is the concept that men are, unlike Hobbes's view, unequal in power, drive, and ability. Due to this inequality of strength, human existence is a giant game of "king of the hill", in which all people are struggling against each other to reach the top and impose their wills on those not strong enough to oppose them. And in the end only a few exceptional people will be elevated by the masses of the weaker, lesser beings into a position of greatness. Those acquiring power are "happy", those who are merely followers of the herd resent their superiors in a state of power loss, or "unhappiness".

Neitzsche's position is stronger because of the fundamental claims that he makes are more correct than Hobbes's. Hobbes claims that since all men are basically equal in strength, that the driving force of humanity is the fear of harm and mistrust of other men. Which is not only shows the weakness of his character, but the weakness of his ideas. How would Hobbes explain altruism? Or how would he respond to the fact that people have an innate desire for love and friendship? By nature, of these types of relationships require trust, the giving of one's self, self-sacrifice, and reciprocation, none of which are compatible with his theories. I believe that Hobbes would be backed into a metaphorical corner and would be forced to make unreasonable claims by redefining the nature of such relationships and saying that they are a product of one's self-interested behavior. But empirical facts clearly show that throughout human existence we have sought these types of relationships that are filled with trust and altruism.

On the other hand, Neitzsche claims that people are all differing greatly in strength, and therefore the application of this power difference is the driving force of humanity. If all men were equal in drive, intelligence, and energy then who would be the "sovereign" that Hobbes's social contract theory presupposes? Someone would have to have the "will" to achieve such a position. People will always rise to positions of power, and the ranks of the elite will always exist because all men are not created equal. Through a combination of nature's blessings, and the influence of one's environment, some men are given stronger bodies, or sharper minds, with greater courage, determination, and desire for the "Will to Power". Ironically Hobbes's theory of people desiring pleasure and the avoidance of pain is only a subset of Neitzsche's theory of Will (desire) as the driving force of humanity. The desire for pleasure is only a manifestation of Will, and the avoidance of pain is simply the will to survive. Thus, one must also conclude that Hobbes's ideas are a cowardly interpretation of Neitzsche's base theory.Just as the Will of a stronger man would clearly dominate Hobbes, his ideas are clearly dominated by the accuracy of Neitzsche's theory.

If confronted with my paper, Hobbes would probably respond to my (Neitzsche's) claim that people are not equal by saying that no matter how strong the will of an individual, we all are vulnerable to disease, weather, fatigue, old age, deception from other men, and violence in times of these weaknesses. Although there is truth in the fact that all men are vulnerable to these calamities, the way in which one responds to them will vary from person to person. One person may crumble and break under the pressure of a freezing storm, whereas other will push forward and continue to march to shelter despite the opposition. So it is not the weakness of our bodies that keep men equal, but the strength of our "Wills" that provides the vast degree of separation in the hierarchy of power that is our society.

It is difficult for a reasonable man to accept an argument based on the principal that all men are of equal strengths when it is clearly obvious through sports, war, and the hierarchy of society that some people have a greater desire to achieve and better means by which to achieve this desire. This "Will to Power" is the fundamental driving force of human existence. For without desire, there would be no pursuit of power, love, friendship, material possessions, and anything else the Will can will. It is not that Hobbes's theory is not worth noting, because he does paint a picture of a world in which the slave mentality is central, while the strong dominate them. His view is only a one aspect of Neitzsche's ideas, a pessimistic, cowardly view of the world that stinks of resentment for the strong. Whereas Neitzsche's view returns to the base fact that the "Will" is the driving factor in morality, while at the same time championing the strong as the beneficiaries of his philosophy.

Please note that this sample paper on Hobbes Vs. Neitzche is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Hobbes Vs. Neitzche, we are here to assist you.Your cheap custom college paper on Hobbes Vs. Neitzche will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Black Odyssey Narrative

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Many African Americans today are challenged daily with a new obstacle.Simple routines such as progressing in school, finding work, or even finding a place to live have been made more difficult for the Black people.The question to ask would be who takes the blame, if blame can be placed on anyone?In the introduction to the Black Odyssey the author, Nathan Huggins, begins to outline how American history commenced with ignorance towards the African American experience up until recent research into American slavery.In using the concept of the master narrative, references such as Ulrich B. Phillips, and Eugene Genovese, American history has provided a cushion to ease the white conscience, provide an explanation for white supremacy, and set a framework for our integrated society in which further studies of American slavery and African American culture would still be considered an attachment to the development of our United States of America.

As Nathan Huggins points out in the beginning of the text, up until about 15 years ago African Americans were, just short of, ignored in the development of American history.Even then, slavery has been the most researched topic for Black studies.Ulrich B. Philips' persona of the slaveholder as a paternal figure in the life of the slave provides a start to examine the cushion built to soothe any white man's aching conscience.In history there have been many assumptions made by historians who in turn have persuaded the way Americans thinks.One assumption made, since the arrival of Africans, was that Africans were racially and culturally inferior to any White person.Philips portrays the slaveholder as "noblesse oblige"(Huggins, pg. xxi).This allows the slaveholder to be seemingly giving.It immediately dismisses any possible wrong doings of the good slaveholder and replaces it with sympathy for their burdens of the Black man. Philips ideas reflect that "Slavery was, to him, a school from which, at some future time, persons of African descent might be graduated into some form of freedom."(Huggins pg. xxi).With such writers, with the same foundation for thinking as Phillips, polluting the impressionable minds of the early twentieth century a cushion was set in place.In such a crucial developmental stage of our country it was understood why it was okay to see Blacks as inferior.

White supremacy has been a developed defense mechanism for Whites throughout all history and has been no exception in the history by our 'Founding Fathers'.Eugene Genovese's examines class as the final distinction of the two races.Genovese's ideas coincide with that of Phillips.The paternal burden is consistent.Genovese takes it even further by proposing that the Old South was simply a neo feudal system innately making the slaveholders responsible for forming the world of the slave.This is progress in that it recognizes the one that held the power as the one who shaped the lives of the slave.Genovese's evaluation of slavery did acknowledge the need to understand the slave, but thought it could only be understood by looking form the top down.Unfortunately, the progress is halted by the cushion provided by Phillips, whichstates that there was a nurturing life that was provided.If, in fact, the slaveholder was a paternal figure to the slave, then it supports the idea that grown Black men were under developed and inferior.They were simply bred to be that way.They were taught to be child like and stay in that or lesser form.Although it was clearly understood that the upper class not only had responsibility, but the power over society as the text shows "They were open and forthright in their consciousness of class, seeing in class struggle the principal threat to order." (Huggins pg. xxvi)Thus, White supremacy is the framework for the defense against possible integration with the Africans or an uprising of the race.

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The master narrative presides in a subtle manner even today.It is how our history has been written and has been the basis of our culture.To throw out 400 years of history would be inconceivable.Although, for 400 years and more, lies have been told to mold a great nation, which may fall to its knees some day for these faults.The master narrative is conceptualized by Huggins as America's history as told from one perspective.That one perspective begins with our Founding Fathers and is perpetuated by those made in the likeness of the Founding Fathers.Ulrich B. Phillips along with Eugene Genovese and countless other have all helped construct the master narrative and create the greatest paradox.It has framed our nation on life, liberty, the pursuit of happiness, the "American dogma of automatic progress…" (Huggins pg. xiii).The exemption of Blacks as being monumental has preempted other Americans to undervalue the contributions of African Americans.Slowly, but surely, we are learning of our 'dark past' and when it is fully understood societies social margins will have to be reevaluated. To construct such a paradox for 400 years insures stability in these ideals.Therefore the master narrative has continued.But if there is an end to the paradox, it may indicate the fall of a great nation.

To suffice the needs of one group of man, another was enslaved.Just as the arrival of the Pilgrims to Plymouth Rock was documented, slavery was too.It has been polished and finished to appease Anglo-Saxon agendas.Explanations, such as Phillips, have made harsh realities easy to bear.Genovese depicts a culture that was burdening to the White man as well as necessary.The text supports that Genovese thought "The culture of slavery preempted capitalistic decision making."This is impossible.Slaves were not captures of war and therefore were brought to America for a purpose.It certainly was not to make a cultured and refined group of people to inhabit our new land.Nonetheless, this is all a part of our country's master narrative, also referred to as history.Since it is a universal belief that we learn form our past, what we have learned is the frame our society works in.We have learned to accept our position of inferiority defended by White supremacy and pacified by those making excuses for the past 400 years.Until we, as Americans, learn the truth the paradox still stands.

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Routing: We're Moving Now!

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Before a message can be passed to its target, it has to be formed; the message is enveloped inside a packet, which is formed by putting the address information of the target as a header of the actual message, so that the destination of the message and its size etc. can be read before the actual message is received. The actual message is then encoded in order to lessen transmittal time. This finalized packet is what gets pushed out of the door. Now our message is ready to be routed to its destination node. Routing is the act of moving a message from a source node or other network entity to its destination. A routing technique is a way of handling the message as it passes through individual nodes. A routing algorithm is a rule set for determining where to send a message next. There are several routing techniques used by entities accessing the Internet lets explore some of these routing techniques and algorithms. Dijkstra's least cost algorithm finds all possible paths between two locations. After identifying all possible paths, it also identifies the least cost path. The algorithm can be applied to determine the least cost path between any pair of nodes; this is the basic principal of routing messages. Lets examine some interesting and notable aspects of routing.

E-cube routing A message routing algorithm used on binary hypercubes. Hypercube is a topology used by early American multiprocessors where each node is the vertex of a d-Dimensional cube. If |Sn-1...S0| and |Dn-1...D0| are the binary co-ordinates of the source and destination of the message, and |Xn-1...X0| their difference, then the e-cube algorithm routes the message along links parallel to the axes corresponding to 1s in |Xn-1...X0|, in order from highest to lowest. In a hypercube, e-cube routing (or dimension-order routing) routes a message from source to destination by traversing the differing dimensions in right-to-left order (or left-to-right the specific order is irrelevant, as long as all routers use the same ordering). All edges of the hypercube are viewed as beinglinks, one in each direction.

Interval routing - A routing algorithm that assigns an integer identifier to each possible destination and then labels the outgoing links of each node with a single contiguous interval or window so that a message can be routed simply by sending it out the link in whose interval its destination identifier falls. Linear Interval Routing is a space-efficient routing method for point-to-point communication networks. It is a restricted variant of Interval Routing where the routing range associated with every link is represented by an interval with no wrap-around. Interval routing is a space-efficient routing scheme; this scheme is attractive because of its simplicity. Interval routing is one among several compact routing techniques for distributed networks. An interval routing scheme substantially reduces the space requirements of routers in the network provided the nodes and the edges of the network together admit an interval labeling scheme the scheme essentially determines the precise route taken by a message from a source to a destination in the network.

Metropolis routing - A routing algorithm for meshes, in which an ordering is imposed on axes, and messages are sent as far along the most significant axis as they need to go, then as far along the next most significant axis, and so on until they reach their destination. A mesh is that topology in which nodes form a regular acyclic or open structured d-dimensional grid, and each edge is parallel to a grid axis and joins two nodes that are adjacent along that axis. The architecture of many multicomputers is a two or three-dimensional mesh; each node represents a point on the mesh, and the edges define the neighbors of a node.

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Virtual cut-through routing - A technique for routing messages in which the head and tail of the message both proceed as rapidly as possible. If the head is blocked because a link it wants to cross is being used by some other message, the tail continues to advance, and the messages contents are put into buffers on intermediate nodes for reassembly later at the destination entity. Virtual cut-through routing reserves no resources in advance and breaks up the packet into several smaller chunks; the pieces of the packet are then transmitted one by one. The virtual cut-through routing scheme has the distinct advantage of not wasting allocated resources. This scheme does however require the use of large buffers to hold the entire packet. This technique addresses the flow control needs of routing.

Wormhole routing- A technique for routing messages in which the head of the message establishes a path, which is reserved for the message until the tail has passed through it. Unlike virtual cut-through routing, the tail proceeds at a rate dictated by the progress of the head, which reduces the demand for intermediate buffering but also slows overall data transmission rate. In wormhole routing, packets are divided into smaller parts of equal size called flits, which are then transmitted one by one, instead of transmitting the packet as a whole. All the flits of the same packet follow the same path and cannot overtake each other. Nodes on the packets path can contain only one flit of that packet and will always try to transmit it to the next node. Because the movement of the packets throught the data path resembles the movement of a worm, the packets themselves are sometimes called worms. It is also noteworthy in wormhole routing it is impossible for flits of another packet to cross the path of the current packet. This means, that even if a node is empty, flits of the other packet cannot use this node, unless the last flit of the current packet has passed it. This characteristic of wormhole routing introduces a problem called deadlock. Deadlock is the situation in which each possible activity is blocked, waiting on some other blocked activity.

Routing data is the most essential element in bringing data our home from the information superhighway. The interconnection of computers has spawned these algorithms, schemes and techniques to forward data from node to node. Without these essential ingredients the Internet would not exist.

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Altruism

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A casual observation of the human life, which involves day-to day interactions with others, asks the question, "Why do people help one another?"To answer this, we must break it down to smaller questions of events that take place during the human day-to-day routine.Why do we give to food banks or send money to a needy child in a third world country?Why do we hold the door open for the stranger behind us? Why do we stay up all night to comfort a friend who has just suffered a broken heart? Often the answer is that we help because we have no choice, because it is expected, or because it is in our own self-interest.A social psychology theory known as altruism specifically addresses the reasons of why we help individuals who are merely strangers to us. Psychologists define altruism as behaviour exhibited by one individual to benefit another, showing no direct gain but resulting in some cost for the first individual. It appears as though the individual who goes out of their way to help another person deviates from the social norm which may appear surprising. However, there is much argument about the nature of the motivation. Is it altruistic, or is it egoistic? Before we discuss why people help others, we must consider if our help for others is always and exclusively motivated by the prospect of some benefit for ourselves, or a selfless act for the sake of the person we are helping rather than our own.Take for example and egotistic scenario.On the night of March 1, 164, upon returning to her apartment in Queens around am; Kitty Genovese was attacked at knifepoint by a rapist.Thirty-eight of her neighbours that surrounded her apartment complex watched and listened from their windows for thirty-five minutes while she screamed in terror.While Kitty lay hopelessly awaiting her death no one attempted to call the police.This is a prime example of what Psychologists refer to as the bystander effect.This involves the non-intervention of bystanders in a critical instance such as injuries, emergencies, or something so minor such as not helping an elderly woman up from a fall.Social psychologists believe the process of decision-making involves split second decisions where we sometime unconsciously consider or weigh our options (Moghaddam,18, p.01).The decision to help or not is made after doing a cost-benefit analysis of the situation, meaning that someone who helps wants to maximize their reward and minimize their costs.This is an example of the commonly known social exchange theory, where relatively selfish behaviour directly links to universal egotism.

What are the true intentions of an individual displaying altruistic intention?Situations such as volunteering at and old age home or stopping at the scene of an accident to see if someone needs help, appear to have no direct reward attached to these actions.One might claim that their actions were entirely altruistic and that no reward was expected or wanted, and it might be quite possible that they are telling the truth.We have all been in situations like this.However, how do we know that their intentions were not motivated by self-benefit or by the mere fact of appearing heroic or honourable?The problem lies within the weak definition of altruism.The definition from the Collins Canadian Dictionary states altruism is "acting for the good of others and not for benefiting oneself".Acting for the good of others is generally common, but at the same time universal egotism states that we act out of selfishness to benefit ourselves.So the internal joy that we get from volunteering at and old age home may really be benefiting oneself, in the form of bettering that person's public image.It is most likely that a person may feel that by volunteering and attending to the needs of the elderly is performing a good deed which in turn may take the place of a sin recently committed.Or those who volunteer through their church to become missionaries building houses in developing countries may be going for the experience to travel, or meet new people, and do a good deed.So by what is stated from the above definition is that these are not examples of altruistic behaviour whatsoever.On a similar note, the social exchange theory involves the thought process of whether to act or not relies on the cost-benefit analysis, which basically analyzes the situation and determines whether or not the person will benefit by helping.According to Myers, the social exchange theory actually takes the selfishness out of altruism, and implies that "an act is never genuinely altruistic; we merely call it 'altruistic' when the rewards are inconspicuous" (Myers, 1004, p. 1).It would appear that if one can not otherwise explain an action that is termed a good deed, we merely consider it altruistic behaviour.

Psychologists refer to the bystander effect when trying to find evidence that will refute what might appear to be of altruistic behaviour.In certain situations where people should display altruistic behaviour and do not had become a concern for social psychologists.If we look back to the murder of Kitty Genovese, the detectives who investigated her murder discovered that at least thirty-eight of her neighbours had witnessed at least one of the three attempts on her life and still not one person called the police.A call was to the police was eventually made after kitty had been dead for sometime.One theory for the failure to act is that observers put the responsibility on each other to make the phone call to the police.They all were aware of each other watching, so each figured that someone else would have made the call.When referring to the cost-benefit analysis, it is determined that the costs will out way the benefits.Therefore, if one were to act in an altruistic manner, it must benefit them or the costs will outweigh the benefits and the individual will refrain from acting.

Throughout this essay I have argued that altruism does not exist in its purest form.I do not deny that the existence of self-sacrifice behaviour or general concern for others does exist, but I believe that we're always in the service of some more or less subtle self benefit.By using such theories as the cost-benefit analysis of the social exchange theory, the diffusion of responsibility of the bystander effect, and the theory of universal egoism I have believe that I've proven that in every act of altruism there is a benefit for the actor, whether it is social acceptance, better public image, or self-gratification.

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Please note that this sample paper on altruism is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on altruism, we are here to assist you.Your cheap custom college paper on altruism will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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