Convergence: explore this concept in historical, technological and creative terms. Reflect on possible implications for film and television as convergence becomes a reality. What does it mean for creators and producers, for big business and for the public

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Many events or happenings throughout history with regard to organisations, corporations, goods and services have come about due to convergence, even if the world has only just started to recognise them.Today, major instances of corporate convergence can be found with media and software companies (AOL Seven); Insurance companies (RACQ GIO); Banks (Suncorp Metway) and many more.However, convergence is more than the merging of two companies.Convergence can be the result of new technologies coming in to play, which, especially today is one of the foremost reasons.One form of technology in particular, has influenced more convergence-related decisions than any other.The Internet.

Since the creation of, and the rapidly growing popularity of the internet, many new companies have been created, but many companies have merged, adapted and converged to put their product online and make it available to the global consumer network.There are corporations like CNN, an American television news network who have now converged and expanded their broadcasting reach to a worldwide audience.Newspapers around the world have also converged their print medium with the virtual medium to broadcast their news to every person who has access to the Internet.Aside from the news media industry, there has been great interest in online shopping and online auctioning.The most widely known of each being Amazon.com and Ebay.To become the popular and productive companies they are today, elements of convergence have taken place.

Convergence comes in many forms, and I'm sure there are some forms yet to be generated by humanity's creations and discoveries.One form of convergence existing today, however is cultural.Cultural convergence was far more significant in the centuries before this, because cultures were much more isolated, such that any relations between cultures sparked major influences and ideas, as well as concepts and creations.Today, we have a highly multicultural and globalised world, with any culture or group of people having the opportunity to interact with any other around the world.While cultural convergence was more significant several hundred ears ago, it is more common and widespread today, very often with cultural and multicultural hybrids being created.Music, in many cases, for example is incredibly diverse and culturally ambitious in comparison.A band in Australia may use standard instruments like guitars and drums, but also incorporate steel drums from island cultures, flutes from eastern areas, and bagpipes from a western culture in Scotland.

All the forms of convergence, not only the ones listed above, greatly affect the creativity of every individual in their community.Furthermore, the convergence of these creations spark new and unique creations in an ever growing 'creative snowball.'Since the invention and accessibility of the Internet, many people have redirected their creativity to include or focus on communication design related ideas.A novelist of ten years ago may be experimenting or even working solely with hypertext on the Internet.The creative possibilities made available by convergence are endless, and will forever be infinite.One concept that has been realised recently is intellectual property.Dealing with copyrights, patents and trademarks, steps have been taken to ensure that creations which now physically exist are protected in ways that prevent another person or organization from using the creation for their own purposes.Such creations include music, film & TV, literature, communication design, artwork, graphic design and mechanical or technological inventions.

Not unlike every other industry, there have been great occurrences of convergence in the film industry since the very late 1800's.Ever since the very first films, film makers have seen the work of people in foreign countries, which has initiated a convergence of cultures and the beginnings of different movements in film history.In the nineteen thirties, American film makers observed what the French were producing, and thus incorporated some of those ideas with their own, created the American film noir period.There currently doesn't seem to be any sort of trend or 'period' of film making occurring at the moment in Australia and the rest of the world, but this doesn't mean there isn't one.We may realise it in years to come.

When you look at convergence and how it relates to the film and television industries today, very few bad points can be seen.There is such vast spread of new hybrid industries involving film and television that can be distinguished easily.The jobs in traditional television, as we have known it for decades, are very likely to be unchanged and secure for quite some time.Millions of people around the world still sit down in front of their television and watch it like they have since childhood, and until high-end Internet technology is more widely accessible, this will stay the same.The content on television stations over the past twenty years has not changed very much at all.The main difference lies in the form it takes, for example, with the developments in computer technology, children can now watch computer generated D television programs as an alternative to traditional animations.This sort of minor technology driven change doesn't affect local content producers in any major way.

At one stage, around the release of movies like Final Fantasy, film actors and actresses were getting extremely worried about their futures, expressing fear of being replaced by computers.Although a computer controlled world is the subject of many popular science fiction films, I remain doubtful that it will become reality.Regardless of how it is delivered, audiences will always need a 'human' aspect to their films and television.There also is a great chance some of these new hybrid industries will be extinguished in the coming years due to the rapidly progressing technological development of the world.

A changing part of the television industry today is the more ways it can be broadcast and delivered to audiences around the world.The worldwide online audience can watch news articles, sporting events and television shows like 'Big Brother' on the Internet, whenever they like.The presence of television style video media on the Internet is always growing.This kind of development in technology and popularity does change the industry in some ways, however they are still not radical changes that affects everyone and everything.What it does achieve is more opportunities to work in the television industry, because some broadcasting agencies are producing Internet specific television which means more specialised crews have to be hired.

There is some interest being expressed about producing films for Internet distribution.At the moment, there are various online film sites where users, and in most cases, paying subscribers can download and watch short films produced directly for the worldwide online audience.This does mean that they aren't generating revenue from box office sales, but that is irrelevant anyhow, short films rarely get shown in cinemas.It is highly beneficial for the film maker to be able to deliver their work to anyone in the world, to gain widespread recognition.This in turn can lead to being seen as a skilled film maker and provide even amateurs with opportunities to produce something for the worldwide market, outside of the Internet.

It is not only amateurs using the internet as a global showcase, well known and established writers, directors, producers and even crew members are using the internet as means for free distribution.Alex Proyas, for example is widely recognised as the director of 'The Crow' and writer/director of 'Dark City,' which were both very successful films for him.He has produced a website (www.mysteryclock.com) where anyone in the world with Internet access can download a few one minute films that he has created. Not only this, he has provided the opportunity for new film makers to submit scripts for one-minute films to him, the best of which, he will help produce.This sort of opportunity for new film makers is extremely valuable for delivering their creations to the worldwide audience to gain some recognition as a skilled artist.

In reality, the Internet provides film makers with a very low cost distribution service.Although they don't benefit from box office sales, with good marketing ideas, they can have their film seen by millions of people around the world.This opportunity gives so many more people a chance to have their work noticed, because, without the Internet, the only chance for this to happen is if the short film is screened at a film festival or on television.That chance is extremely slim.The implications of this technological convergence are that more people have the opportunity to get their work out into the world for people to see and notice.

It is only recently convergence has become so hugely corporate which may be an indication of what is to come.Due to the apparent failure of some converged corporations in their first year of big business convergence (AOL Time Warner), the amount of converging corporations may not be as big as expected.On the other hand, it may just inspire other organisations to learn from the mistakes of others and try to succeed where they failed.To exemplify, AOL has had another go at convergence with another corporation, the Seven network.

When seen from a public perspective, it's hard to tell how effective these forms of convergence are, as far as popularity.When it comes down to it, it's all about who has got the money, and who can be bothered.Why would people who have television, which is free, pay money to access an interactive version on their computer, where the information takes longer to get to them?I am one of these people, and I'm sure there's at least thousands more, probably millions.Of the 0 million (roughly) Australians, I would guess that no more than 100,000 have subscribed to something like AOL Seven Broadband.It does deliver a lot of content that's not seen on television, but the public generally isn't interested.On their free television stations, they have movies, soaps, reality TV, documentaries, news, drama serials and much more.Furthermore, if they want to know specific things like the results of an Italian soccer match, there's plenty of free websites they can access to find out.Generally speaking.

I can imagine that local content creators and producers were worried about losing their market with the big business convergence happening around them, but at this stage, I see no reason for that worry.Millions of people are still going to sit down and watch their television, there isn't ever going to be a mass pilgrimage to computers and the Internet.Moreover, we still have to realise that for the general population, television isn't something they live for and need to survive.If there's something the public want to know about in the world, then there's easily enough ways to do so, for free.

Please note that this sample paper on Convergence: explore this concept in historical, technological and creative terms. Reflect on possible implications for film and television as convergence becomes a reality. What does it mean for creators and producers, for big business and for the public is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Convergence: explore this concept in historical, technological and creative terms. Reflect on possible implications for film and television as convergence becomes a reality. What does it mean for creators and producers, for big business and for the public, we are here to assist you.Your cheap custom college paper on Convergence: explore this concept in historical, technological and creative terms. Reflect on possible implications for film and television as convergence becomes a reality. What does it mean for creators and producers, for big business and for the public will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Vonnegut and his inconsistency

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The America in which Kurt Vonnegut finds himself is a country of broken promises.His ancestors emigrated to America to escape poverty, encouraged by the hope of a new way of life, epitomized by the American Dream.This is the dominant philosophy in American society, that if you work hard enough, you can achieve anything that you want to.Vonnegut's novels express a dissatisfaction with this view, a desire for a more realistic and useful approach to life.What Vonnegut likes to point out is an intrinsic fault in the structure of America.This country is almost entirely composed of immigrants, from a vast cross section of culture.But rather than drawing on all these different cultures, they have been mangled and distorted to form the America of today.The various cultures have been left behind, in favor of a new identity, a strong part of which is the American Dream.Success in America is supposed to be dependent on hard work.Success for characters in Vonnegut's novel's is more likely to come about from what he terms 'dumb luck'and life is ruled by more random principles.He sees a country where the desires and needs of people have been taken over by those of business and government; what he desires is a return to the basic needs of people.Vonneguts books each have a unique feature of them dealing around the same problems.Through his books Vonnegut has created a unique relationship between the created image of humanity, people in general and Divinity, a divine power of God.Vonnegut also portrays family life as he experienced it through out his childhood while still including humanity and divinity.

Humanity is seen as a machine moving incontrollably forward, driven by several factors (such as greed for money and wealth, ambition, sex).The

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machine never stops, decency is unimportant, and human lives are also unimportant.The 'monster' moves onward, destroying everything that gets in its way.However,the machine also seems to be driven by a much high force, something completely our of humanity's control.

One thing that drives human beings is sexual lust as stated by Vonnegut.He suggests that people's inability to control their animal drives will lead the planet into doom, mostly by means of overpopulation.

Mary Hepburn, one of the main characters in Galapagos, describes, for example, "how easily a teenage virgin could be made pregnant by the seed of a male who was seeking sexual release and nothing else, who did not even like her"In Breakfast of Champions Vonnegut points out that most countries are in such a miserable condition that there is no more space for people, they have nothing to eat.Still they go on having sexual intercourse, which is, as Vonnegut reminds us, how babies are made."More babies are arriving all the timekicking and screaming, yelling for milk"Humanity, is producing more than it can sustain, yet it is ignorant of this fact."Just because something can reproduce, that doesn'tmean it should reproduce,"

Vonnegut does not only describe the drives of humanity, he uncovers the source of these lusts and of all the bad things humanity does. In Galapagos, the course is humanity's imagination, destructive ideas, and people's oversized brains."If catastrophe comes more easily to man than courtesy and decency," as suggested by Contemporary Authors, "man's large brain is to blame"Vonnegut asserts that the planet is basically innocent, "except for those big brains"These brains are "irresponsible, unreliable, hideously dangerous, wholly unrealistic" and they are "simply no damn good"These brains make people life. They generate crazy ideas in the heads of human beings who cannot help but carry them out. Vonnegut calls this aspect of human brains "diabolical"

A rather common tendency that humanity seems to have in Vonnegut's works are suicidal tendencies.How oftenthe reader encounters characters who die prematurely of their own will.So often, the bad ideas in people's brains make them do such a horrible thing as commit suicide.In Timequake, Vonnegut says that people are the smartest animals on the planet, who "hate being alive so much."A rather common manner of ending one's life is eating Drano, a poisonous chemical normally used for cleaning drains.Celia Hoover,the wife of one of the main characters of Breakfast of Champions and Deadeye Dick, commits suicide in this manner.Drano also appears later in Vonnegut's

books as a successful tool of deliberate self destruction.He writes that the Earth itself, humanity itself looked as it if were eating this chemical.

From reading Vonnegut, one can easily conclude that Vonnegut intends to show that people are stupid, that humanity as a whole is stupid, dumb and ignorant.From reading Vonnegut, one can easily conclude that Vonnegut intends to show that people are stupid, that humanity as a whole is stupid, dumb and ignorant.With several characters the writer takesit to the extreme, such asKimberleyintheChemistryProfessor.Theplays commentary calls her scatterbrained , but stupidity could be the image the reader forms when reading about her going to look up an unimportant comment in the library, a comment that has been uttered just by the way, and even more when, after a fewpages, Kimberley enters again and asks innocently Which buildingis the library?Others, more important characters, may be seen as stupid as well.Howard, forexample, seesBilly (Slaughterhouse Five) as a vaguely dissatisfied dupe, and adds that he is a blank and stupid man. In CatsCradle Bokonon says thathecouldwriteawholebook,a history of human stupidity and use it for a pillow.

Another quality of humanity corresponds stupidity.This quality is seen when Vonnegut desribes people as machines.In Sirensof Titan Vonnegutexplains the term machine.In his opinion, to be a machine is to be vulgar, to lack sensitivity and imagination.These traits or most of them, can be recognized in most human characters in Vonnegut's novels.

Humanity's vulgarity is obvious from perhaps everything Vonnegut has written from how people talk and how they act, from their 'animal' attitude towards sexuality etc.

That people are purposeful is also a very often expressed quality.People keep doing what they seem to be programmed for, what they seem to be designed for.One of these purposes is surely the already mentioned reproduction method.

Another aspect of Vonnegut's novels that can hint at the issue of purposefulness, is people being reduced into unthinking entities by various institutions.People are often seen as robots under orders, willing to do anything.In Sirens of TitanVonnegut describes soldiers as people with antennae in their heads, controlled by radio to do anything the commander chooses.

The only exception from the traits of 'a machine' applied to humanity is the lack of imagination.It cannot be said that his characters lack imagination.On the contrary, human imagination is often emphasized.It is a very important human quality of Vonnegut's humanity.

Man's inhumanity can be understood only tangentially, through science fiction devices.

The human being is most human--and most praiseworthywhen he lives wholeheartedly in his natural condition, working in the open, doing joyfully for his own support, loving other life, and being loved.Human worthhence significanceresides in the being of the human.

Vonnegut shows humanity in the worst light possible, over and over again describing human lives as precious and valuable in themselves.People do not need to prove to be worthy, their worth is there no matter what kind of person they happen to be.Vonnegut depicts usually broken down people, criminals, failures, while still showing the fact that their value is great, beyond measurement.

When describing Vonnegut's used of divinitythere is one thing in mind "entity".Divinity plays a part in almost all novels by Kurt Vonnegut and is seen from similar viewpoints.This is due to the fact that Vonnegut comes from a society where Christianity is the major religion, he in turn mainly refers to the 'Christian' God in his books.However, there are some expectations when Vonnegut replaces God with some other 'higher' force (such as Mother Nature in Galapagos, or Time in Jailbird) .These 'higher' forces carry the same attributes and usually have the same qualities as Vonnegut's God.

There is only one quality which could be isolated and studied independently on the relationship with humanity the lack of concern for anything, indifference and laziness.Even though Vonnegut admits, that God could have designed something like Heaven, or Paradise for good people to go to after death, the view that he lacks for human beings is still there.Vonnegut seems to be asking whether such a paradise can be considered tobe a kind of reward.Since God is, in his view indifferent towards the people, one cannot expect Him to be indifferent when it comes to the afterlife.

In Jailbird, Vonnegut presents two kinds of characters.They are not people versus God, they are people and years.It seems as though the years serve as a function that is played by god in the other novels something that makes people do things, something that is to blame instead of people.

In Timequake, there is a problem of free will apparently cause by God or any intelligent being.It is a timequake, a natural catastrophe which happens just as an earthequake might happen all of a sudden, with no-one's intention. Therefore, the re ader would not have to suspect divinity behind the scene.It is definitely a human quality or maybe "divine" quality, and not of something abstract, something not living.This may be understood in such a way that, even though Vonnegut is really speaking about a natural disaster, there is divinity acting the same way as timequake.It is divinity, as can be concluded, who drags us through life.

Vonnegut reveals in the shallow absurdities of life.If no human villain can be discovered, the Vonnegut seems to say that perhaps god is the villain…14

Vonnegut seldom addresses the question of God directly.Through his style, his humor, and especially through the form of science fiction he is able to sidestep every direct confrontation with the question of God.The question, however, seems to haunt him at every turn.If life were only hopelessly and idiotically absurd, then the whole question could be dismissed.But two circumstances will not allow the question to be dismissed.A certain design, a certain pattern is strangely discernible in events.And…secondly, man has an inquisitive nature which seeks to know the reasons for things.In conclusion the purpose of people is to love and to be happy.

Throughout his writings, Vonnegut illustrates man's necessity of family, whether hereditary or artifical.People often say that family is the basis of every state and every human society.Should family be broken, the society would break as well.The family in Vonnegut's books just seems not to work properly.Especially the relationship between father and son often fails to function correctly.

Vonnegut writes as though America would be more sincere if a more definite family atmostphere were implemented that catered to and made each citizen an absolute necessity to the machine.For a family utopia to exist, family members must observe a similar concept of conformity to ensure pleasure and fulfillment for all.By practicing basic rules of common decency this is achieved in beautiful proportions.Only as a member of expansive family groupings can man truly find his place in society and flourish amongst its support and companionship.

Drawing from familiar individuals and past experiences, Vonnegut relies on his own impression of families natural, and otherwise to create plot and relate his views to the reader audience.Using characters that very nearly mirror himself, his life, and the lives of his family, the author illustrates his theories through incidents of his theme.

When common decency is given higher priority than love in family relationships, the quality and quotient for success is greatly increased, bettering the entire situation.Where common decency is practiced, a bond is automatically formed between parties that creates a unity resembling family.As most individuals, struggling in their loneliness, are searching for such compassions from others, shared common decency offers the much needed family environment situation imperative in a profitable society.

Vonnegut constantly petitions society with the pervading message that 'you've got to be kind'.Vonnegut illustrates that this dependence is only successfully achieved in practicing common decency.Thus does Vonnegut create a web of interdependence and reliance on others for him characters; even in the midst of suffering and discomfort, to truly be satisfied one must rely on positive influences of others.

Most of Vonnegut's novels deal with life, seeking its true purpose.

Please note that this sample paper on Vonnegut and his inconsistency is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Vonnegut and his inconsistency, we are here to assist you.Your cheap custom college paperson Vonnegut and his inconsistency will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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The human element - a fictional story

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The purple sky where Sarah lived cast a warm glow over the horizon, night was setting in. The great mountain that towered over everything else was obscured at the top by misty clouds. It sheltered the valley where the Yakkas lived, so the weather was always mild during the day. A river running through it supplied water to drink and meant that lush vegetation grow in abundance, providing perfect hunting ground and hiding the village from outsiders.

Her husband, Gregor Defray, had been hunting in the jungle of overgrown scrub around the village when a group of outsiders appeared climbing down the side of the great mountain. There were three humans. He told her how he went to attack, but hiding in the undergrowth he observed them and they were nothing more that the merest shadows of life. So worn down and thin from starvation that they might collapse at any moment. They weren't a threat and they wouldn't make a good meal, so curious about what had happened to them Gregor brought them back to his home. Sarah crossed her arms and glared at him. He was always bringing danger into their house, whereas outside it was mostly peaceful. Now he looked at her with the most doleful eyes and she could not resist him.

'Ok, they can stay, but we're keeping them outside' she conceded. She and Gregor scrubbed the thick layers of dirt off their wasted bodies, gave them clean clothes and water. The she put them out, tied them each to a rope that was long enough to stretch to the river near the house, and made sure she locked the backdoor firmly. Humans were thought to be dangerous but they hardly ever ventured over the mountain because it was too high and too treacherous. They were weak creatures but Sarah still slept uneasily that night and was up early the next morning, watching them through the window. Two of them were still asleep, huddled together to warmth. The third was sitting quite still on the log pile. Suddenly he leapt off and pounced on a small bird, catching its wing with his outstretched arms. He pulled it toward him and snapped its neck, killing it in an instant. Sarah let out a cry of astonishment and ducked in case he saw her. When she looked back he was plucking the bird and eating bits of its flesh. These were pets to Gregor, but she wanted nothing to do with them.

'You can feed them' she told him when he got up 'they're disgusting. No, in fact we shouldn't feed them at all we should get rid of them, Gregor, before they hurt someone.'

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'They wont harm anything,' he said casually strolling outside to look at the better.

'Besides we can train them' He looked at the humans and grinned happily, Gregor always loved dangerous pets, he even had a black widow spider once.

'Well what are you going to feed them?' Sarah asked.

She looked at the humans with a mixture of interest and loathing. They looked like Yakkas only with stubby teeth and dark eyes. One of them looked at her intently.He had long curly brown hair and thick beard.

'We can eat your leftovers' he said hoarsely, still dehydrated.

He sounded so pathetic that Sarah took pity on them, despite their savage eating habits and let Gregor keep them until they were once again fit and healthy. Gregor, far from training them like pets, have them taught in polite mannerisms and the right way to dress and how to ride a horse. He cut their hair so it was short like Yakka hair and shaved them, the result was stunning. They look so different it would have been hard to tell they were the same creatures but Sarah recognised the one with curly hair still because it refused to sit down straight no matter how much serum Gregor lavished on him. A friend of theirs came to visit one day and saw the humans riding about the yard and asked if they were relatives come to stay.

'No, we found them, they're human.' Gregor boasted, enjoying the look of shock on his friends face.

'How? They look so normal, so Yakka, its amazing. I thought humans were too stupid to ride horses.'

'These one can, I taught them' Gregor said 'The only thing I can change is their teeth, not long enough or sharp enough to be like ours and I can't make them grow'

It wasn't long before his friends spread the word and it travelled like wildfire. They soon became the talk of the town and the Yakka people would come out to see them riding across the scrubland, dressed like kings and shouting to each other.

Gregor was praised for his transformation of such wild creatures into civilised beings.

His success was heard of s o far away that he was called to a large city in Newdock, to train other captured humans. The richest gentry lived in Newdock and Gregor couldn't refuse even if he had wanted to. He packed in a frenzy of excitement.

'Oh Sarah, I'll get to see things we have only imagined. Riches greater than we would know how to spend. I will be gone a long time but I promise I'll bring back a fortune and we can live like royalty for the rest of our lives.'

Sarah wasn't happy at the though of looking after the humans while Gregor was away but she bit her tongue and let him go without saying a word. This was what he has dreamed about for years, living a better life and never having to worry about money. She waved him goodbye, hiding her sadness from him so he would be happy and told him to return home soon.

She took over caring for the humans. Their new impeccable manners made her forget they were wild and immoral creatures over the weeks to come and she began to like them. She let hem sleep downstairs in the living room next to the fireplace so they wouldn't be too cold, whereas before she would have been frightened for her life if they even got in the kitchen.

She began to teach then about Yakka society to continue her husband's work on them.

'We live with our parents until the time is right for us to get married and our parents pick a husband or wife for us. We have to show respect to others so our town can live in peace, and no fighting goes on.'

'How do you feed your young?' the one asked. 'You suck blood from other creatures don't you? How can your babies do that.' He said it with the same kind of disgust that Sarah had for them when they first met and she realised that their customs may seem wrong to them but looked at from another point of view, it was not them who were disgusting, but her own people.

'You drink the blood yourself, to keep it warm in your mouth and then you drizzle the blood into their mouths, how else.'

The curly haired one nodded at her reassuringly at her and looked into her eyes as if asking for more, but Sarah couldn't think what he was asking for, their was nothing more to tell about babies.

In return for her teaching they told her how they had been cast out of their hometown because they were mistakenly accused of robbing a church. The curly haired one who had spoken first grew to be her particular friend. She found him beautiful on the outside because he was different, but also because in his heart she thought he was the same. His dark eyes were powerful and forbidding, but also deep and soft. Sarah though she could see into the very depths of his soul. She called him Rogozhin, though it seemed a strange name to her, he said it was what his family called him and she showed him great respect by using it. Her husband would have laughed at her and told her not to get too attached to their pets, but he was not around.

When Sarah had to go into town she took Rogozhin with her and she showed him the small settlement with great pride.

'It is almost always peaceful here' she told him 'Yakkas value it above all else.' She showed him the temple they had erected at the north end of the village; it was small as it was all they could manage but rich in detail and materials. Master silk makers had decorated the inside in a rainbow of colours and the altar was stamped with gold leaf. Outside the most skilled carpenters had used the finest wood to craft a miniature steeple crowned the top of the temple and a brass bell rang inside it, calling all to worship Shakra, their god and creator of tranquillity.

The bell rang now, but for a very different reason. It signalled the end of a funeral, Mrs. Defrays. Her last living relative, her son, walked sombrely out the temple and back through the village to her house. It was now his. The rest of the villagers followed him, Sarah followed quietly behind them too to show her respect and Rogozhin followed her.

'What are they doing?' he asked

The son stood on the threshold while they each in turn bowed their heads toward him and returned to where they lived,

'This is a symbol of sympathy and acceptance of his new position in the village.' Sarah explained. 'Soon they will celebrate'

'Celebrate? That's horrible' Rogozhin cried

'Shhhh… It's our custom. When you die you achieve what the rest of us long for, eternal peace and living a higher existence.' She took his hand and walked his away from he scene before he had any more outbursts but when they got out of sight of the townsfolk he did not let go of her hand.

'Sarah, I think in falling in love with you' he said.

She tried to pull away from him again but he held her fast.

'I know we're different, you find me rough and uncivilised but I will make you love me one day Sarah, I promise'

Sarah didn't want him to make her love, she already did, but she was married and that man was not a man at all but a human being.

'Could you give up killing just for food and consume only blood like I do' she asked'We cannot love each other, we are not of the same world.'

This didn't stop Rogozhin, had become strong again and he held her to him.

'I'm married, stop it' she protested but without struggling to get free.

'He's never going to return, Sarah, he's got a new life now in a rich exciting world. He's forgotten about his place.'

A love affair did begin. Sarah tried to fight it but she loved him much more passionately lover than Gregor. Rogozhin's his emotions were raw and uncontrolled and she loved him for it. It wasn't long before the other humans heard of it, and cheers and clapped as Sarah walked by, arousing the suspicions of other folk.

After a while of doubtful watching they realised that their suspicions were right. Sarah was lowering herself to this humans level, she was debasing herself, breaking the sanctity of marriage. They were in uproar. Not in a long time had any Yakka upset the balance of nature as she did. They came for her, in the dead of night. A huge mob of them with flaming torches. They took Sarah from her room without waking her and brought her out side. There was a cry of anger from the crowd when they saw her restful slumber and she woke. The whole of the town seemed to be there. Their calm peaceful faces were hard and furious. One persons mistake and they all came down like a house of cards, their whole structure was paper thin.

'You are accused of breaking your marriage vows and of shaming this whole town by having a gross affair with a low vicious uncivilised human.'

'I'm not guilty' Sarah cried in panic 'he's gently and loving and he is civilised, my husband saw to that.'

The crowd roared again, more angry than ever before, she admitted her guilt and was unrepentant. They dragged her away from the house and back into the village where the constructed a makeshift platform and a rope.

'Hang her! Hang her!' they shouted.

The change in them was unbelievable, no one would never have foreseen this in such caring people, and in the in the gently violet glow of the morning they went back to normal, carrying on as if nothing had happened.

Rogozhin sat in the kitchen surrounded by his Sarah's things. They had taken her while he was still asleep, and he had no idea where they had taken her. The youngest human had woken but had been too scared to move. He told Rogozhin how they had taken her and were baying for blood. She wouldn't have been able to stop them. The blood-drained carcass of her last meal in front of him. Yakkas hunted wild animal carefully so as not to spill any blood but when it came to drinking them the best way was simply to bite into the neck, without any other preparation. The best meals were where the blood was still warm and the vein pumped the velvety smooth liquid directly into your mouth with no any extra pressure. Rogozhin's passion however was not the blood at all. He loved to eat the flesh, to tear into the dead body of an animal and rip off small chunks. Slowly chewing it and tasting the strong bitter flavour was ecstasy. He loved the way his stomach felt heavy and stretched when he had finished; it felt always light and relaxed with only blood to digest. Sarah had left he body for him, she hadn't needed to kill it her realised, she did it for him. The first time Sarah saw it she was shocked anddisgusted, but she had been expecting it because was human after all and the her love she accepted it eventually and helped him hide it, but the others would not be so understanding, they could not accept such violence in their precious bubble of calm. She had been right in the first place, he was a monster.

He went down to the waters edge and look at his reflection in the rushing water. His hair still stood up in places refusing to give up its human heritage. He couldn't change, he would always be like this, never accepted in the town he had grown to love through Sarah teachings and the woman he loved had paid for loving him. Filled with despair his walked into the river, feeling the rush of cold water round his legs and further until it reached his waist. This was punishment, he told himself. He deserved it, he was a gross mistake of nature. Then without looking back he stepped further, till the water swallowed up his entire being.

Word count 547

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"Account for the causes of the Russian Revolution of 1905"

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"Account for the causes of the Russian Revolution of 105"

From the year 161 the Romanov family had led Russia through its ups and downs by the power of the Tsar. The family had shown Russia the way to becoming one of the world's largest and most powerful empires, but their reign was brought to an end with the murder of the last of the Romanov's, Tsar Nicholas II, his wife and five children in 117. This event was preceded by a combination of things which led to the initial revolution of 105 and the Tsar's consequential struggle for power. There was a great support and loyalty among the masses for the Tsar and his family, but this support was beginning to decline for a number of reasons. All of which led to the first Russian Revolution in 105, which laid the foundation for the final Bolshevik Revolution in 117.

Upon the death of Alexander III in 184 his son Nicholas II, the last Tsar of Russia, reluctantly took the throne. After the death of his Father, Nicholas confided in his brother-in-law "What am I going to do? What is going to happen to me… to all of Russia? I am not prepared to become Tsar. I never wanted to become one." 1 This statement demonstrates his lack of confidence in his leading ability despite him being hailed as one of Europe's most intelligent monarchs of the time. Nicholas II led in a very traditional manner. He modelled his autocracy on that of a 17th Century Tsar by the name of Alexei Mikailovich, whom he named his son after. He held 17th century style balls and brought back official language that had been phased during the reign of Peter the Great. This showed that while the rest of the world was modernising, Russia remained traditional and as a result was not prepared to enter the 0th Century.

Nicholas was a very intelligent man, although this by no means meant that he was fit to lead a nation that covered around one-sixth of the world's surface. Nicholas had two main shortcomings; firstly he had a habit of not trusting those who were most capable and fit to serve him and his country, such as those who had served his father. Secondly, his ready confidence and willingness to believe in those who were not fit to advise him. A prime example of this was his overwhelming trust in a peasant by the name of Rasputin who was supposedly easing the severity of his son's haemophilia. Nicholas also placed a great deal of trust in his wife, who was thought by his father to be unfit for the role of empress. Nonetheless the marriage went ahead and the two would constantly refer to Rasputin as "our friend" who they believed was a "Man of God" because he could somehow control their son's pain.

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It was not merely the insufficiencies of Nicholas II that lead to the Revolution of 105, although this was a major part, there were other significant events combined with the manner in which the government was run that led to it's demise. Within Russia an extreme Right-wing movement and an extreme Left-wing movement had emerged. The right or 'Black Hundred' group formed at the turn of the century and was in favour of the Tsar and autocracy rather than a parliamentary government. They were devoutly anti-Semitic and it was for these reasons that Tsar Nicholas II openly supported their cause and publicly denounced Jews. The Left-wing movement had several groups; the most prominent of these in the eventual revolution of 117 was the Bolsheviks, later to be referred to as the Communist Party, which was formed by Lenin in 10. There were other groups that had the same basic ideals as the Bolsheviks but they differed on the minor details. Another such group was called the Mensheviks; they were not quite as extreme as the Bolsheviks, although both opposed the Tsar and his unlimited power over Russia. They played a vital role in bringing down the Tsar's popularity through the media and other forms of propaganda. Although they did not play an overly significant role until the revolution of 117, their mere existence showed the support for the revolution in 105.

The inability for these two parties to work in unity was one of the reasons why the Tsar was able to suppress the revolution of 105. They were attacking different areas of the government in small numbers which made it easier for the Tsar to quell any revolutionary feeling amongst the population as he had proved that it would not be successful.

The Tsarist regime was suitable in earlier years when communication was less sophisticated and the world was not going through a period of rapid modernisation with the industrial revolution. Having one supreme leader made it difficult to have an efficient system of government. There were several ministers who reported directly to the Tsar since there was no overall co-ordination of policy. The tsar often gave contradictory or incompatible orders, so each minister followed his own orders in isolation without consulting one another. These ministers did not necessarily have to be well educated; the only condition for appointment was to pledge allegiance to the Tsar. The Tsar and his ministers were becoming increasingly out of touch with the mood of the people, this showed that reform was necessary in order to address the corruption within the government.

By 104 with the emergence of radical revolutionary groups the Tsar felt the need to regain his popularity. At this time Russia and Japan both had interests in Manchuria. They were in the midst of negotiation of the Russian withdrawal from China but the Russian government would not back down on its stance and was prepared to engage in armed conflict as it believed that a Japanese force would be easily crushed. The Tsar also believed that a victory over Japan would increase his support. Despite his optimism, the Russo-Japanese War was a disaster to the Tsar. The Russian armies suffered a series of defeats in the battlefields because they did not have the correct equipment or weaponry and were poorly trained. The corruption and the inefficiency that was rife within the government were exposed in the duration of the war. The war caused transportation to break down and bread prices to soar up resulting in widespread famine and a decline in popularity for the Tsar. The Tsarist government was totally discredited in the eyes of the Russian people.

Although at this time Russia ranked fifth among the industrial nations of the world in terms of industrial production, the conditions of the workers were bad. Their wages were low reaching only about 5 to 0 per cent of that of British workers. Their working hours were long, usually consisting of a 15-hour day, 6-day week. Their living conditions were intolerable as they were crowded together in barracks where there were no healthy and sanitary facilities. Conditions in the factories were also unsatisfactory as there were no safety devices to protect the workers. The peasant class in Russia made up a significant portion of the population and it was this oppression that led to the declining support of the Tsar. There was a widespread belief that he would be their saviour and change the conditions for the better as Alexander II had when he abolished Serfdom in 1861, but when it was obvious that this would not occur the peasant support for the Tsar began to dwindle.

The peasants of Russia had been brought up to show loyalty, deference and obedience to the Tsar and his officials. They were taught in schools to show respect for the Tsar and how to remain loyal. This is part of the reason for the peasantry believing that the Tsar would one day be their saviour from harsh working conditions and long hours. Below is an extract of the basic school teachings

"Q.How should we show respect for the Tsar?

A.1. We should feel complete loyalty to the Tsar and be prepared to lay down our lives for him. . We should without objection fulfil his commands and be obedient to the authorities appointed by him. . We should pray for his health and salvation, and also for that of all the Ruling House.

Q.What should we think of those who violate their duty toward their Sovereign?

A. They are guilty not only before the Sovereign, but also before God. The Word of God says, 'Whosoever therefore resisteth the power resisteth the ordinance of God' (Rom. 1)"

The creation of Trade Unions for better conditions for the workers of Russia was illegal so the peasant class was subject to this harsh treatment without any say at all in how much they were paid or how long they worked. This was a major incentive for the working class to hold strikes in demand for better conditions. On January , 105, a priest by the name of Father Gapon, decided to lead a group of striking workers to present a petition to the Tsar at the Winter Palace. The petition included political and economic demands. Political demands were the calling of an elected duma, freedom of speech and assembly, guarantee of fair trials and an official pardon for political prisoners. "DUMA (State Assembly) Elected legislative body that, along with the State Council, constituted the imperial Russian legislature"The economic demands included more labour legislation, a reduction in working hours to an eight-hour day, a reduction in indirect taxes and the introduction of a graduated income tax. The petition also demanded to end the war with Japan immediately. The petition gained a great deal of support and was signed by around 15,000 people.

Gapon hoped that the Tsar would grant reforms to lessen the discontent of the workers. Gapons group was followed by a vast but unquestionably peaceful and orderly crowd of around 150,000. The crowd carrying the portraits of the Tsar and of the Orthodox saints assembled on the square in front of the Palace. At this moment, the crowd still thought that they were the children of the Tsar who would redress their grievances. Suddenly the guards of the Winter Palace fired on the crowd, more than a hundred demonstrators were killed, and several hundred more wounded. After this bloody slaughter, the Russians lost their age-old faith in the Tsar as the great guardian of his people. This event is known as Bloody Sunday and can be seen as the immediate catalyst for the 105 Russian Revolution.

The Revolution itself consisted of a series of general strikes throughout Russia, the magnitude and widespread nature of these strikes convinced Tsar Nicholas II that action needed to be taken. He issued the October Manifesto which outlined amendments to the way the government was run in order to appease the striking workers.

1."Fundamental civil freedoms will be granted to the population, including real personal inviolability, freedom of conscience, speech, assembly and association.

.Participation in the Duma will be granted to those classes of the population which are at present deprived of voting powers, insofar as is possible in the short period before the convocation of the Duma, and this will lead to the development of a universal franchise. There will be no delay to the Duma elect already been organized.

.It is established as an unshakeable rule that no law can come into force without its approval by the State Duma and representatives of the people will be given the opportunity to take real part in the supervision of the legality of government bodies." 4

The terms of the October Manifesto did not meet the precise demands of the radical revolutionaries. It did however satisfy a good deal of the striking workers, who interpreted it as a victory and consequently returned to their jobs. This in turn weakened the revolutionary movement enough for the key leaders to be arrested.

After the 105 Russian Revolution Tsar Nicholas II managed to hang on to his leadership. Although his reputation was severely damaged and he no longer had absolute power, he did not have to succumb to the revolutionary movement by abdicating. This first Revolution was a learning experience for those who opposed the Tsar; they now had time to plan for the Bolshevik Revolution of 117. Even though the Tsar was still in control the Revolution showed that his power and that of the government was not secure.

1 Pp.15 Before the revolutionA view of Russia under the last Tsar, Quote by Nicholas II to his brother-in-law upon hearing of the death of his father

Pp. 6 A People's TragedyThe Russian Revolution 181-14, Extract from the school catechism prepared by the Holy Synod

Encyclopaedia Britannica 18, Definition of Russian Duma

4 http//www.dur.ac.uk/~dml0www/octmanif.html, Extract from the October Manifesto written by Nicholas to put a stop to the Revolution

Bibliography

Adams, Arthur (17) Russian Revolution and Bolshevik Victory Causes & Processes, D.C Heath & Company, Canada

Thaden, Edward (171) Russia Since 1801The making of a new society, John Wiley & Sons, USA

Keep, J (16) The Rise of Social democracy in Russia, Oxford University Press, London, UK

Fitzlyon, Kyril & Browning, Tatiana (178) Before the revolutionA view of Russia under the last Tsar, Penguin Books, London, UK

Encyclopaedia Britannica 18

Figes, Orlando (16) A People's TragedyThe Russian Revolution 181-14, Random House UK

Dukes, Paul (10) A History of Russia Medieval, Modern and Contemporary, Macmillan

Wood, Alan (187) The Origins of the Russian Revolution 1861-117, Methuen

Powell, Bill (18) Family ties From Autocracy to Democracy, Newsweek

http//www.dur.ac.uk/~dml0www/octmanif.html Polnoe sobranie zakonov Rossiiskoi Imperii, rd series, vol. XXV/I, no. 680

http//thecorner.org/hists/russia/revo105.htm#THE%0REIGN%0OF%0NICHOLAS%0II

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Causes of Adolescent Deviant Behavior

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Deviance involves breaking a norm. If you were the only male in a college classroom full of women, you probably wouldn't be considered deviant. However, if a man were to use the woman's restroom, we would regard him as deviant. That is because deviance is not merely departure from the statistical average. It implies violating an accepted rule of behavior. Many deviant acts go unnoticed or are considered so trivial they warrant no punishment. However, people who are observed committing more serious acts of deviance are typically punished, either informally or formally (Brym, Lie 00 145).

Informal punishment is mild. It may involve raised eyebrows, gossip, ostracism, shaming, or stigmatization. When people are stigmatized, they are negatively evaluated because of a marker that distinguishes them from others (Brym, Lie 00145).Formal punishment results from people breaking laws, which are norms stipulated and enforced by government bodies. For example, criminals may be formally punished by having serve time in prison or perform community service (Brym, Lie 00146). Sociologist John Hagan usefully classifies various types of deviance and crime along three dimensions. The first dimension is the severity of the social response. At one extreme, homicide and other very serious forms of deviance result in the most severe negative reactions, such as life imprisonment or capital punishment. At the other end of the spectrum, some people may do little more than express mild disapproval of slight deviations from a norm, such as wearing a nose ring (Brym, Lie 00146).

The second dimension of deviance and crime is the perceived harmfulness of the deviant or criminal act. While some deviant acts, such as rape, are generally seen as very harmful, others, such as tattooing, are commonly regarded as being of little consequence. Note that actual harmfulness is not the only issue here. Perceived harmfulness is (Brym, Lie 00146). The third characteristic of deviance is the degree of public agreement about whether an act should be considered deviant. For example, people disagree about whether smoking marijuana should be considered a crime, especially since it may have therapeutic value in treating pain associated with cancer (Brym, Lie 00146).

According to Norm Sheehan (001) in assessing deviant acts committed in our social group we use causal explanations, what made one of us do this? Explanations of internal causation require an evaluation of our moral center, because in attempting to understand deviant behavior we must address our culpability through affiliation to someone like us who has behaved this way. Therefore, within a social group the causal aspects of deviance from a moral norm focus on the individual deviance and the depravity of the perpetrator who must be condemned. This condemnation of the individual allows more venial conclusions to be made concerning the culpability of the group. The perpetration of child abuse within the dominant culture by a priest, for example, does not lead to general call to ban religion. The priest is condemned for what he did, because of who he is.

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What makes the criminal life so attractive to so many young men and women? In general, why do deviance and crime occur at all? Sociologists have proposed dozens of explanations. However, we can group them into two basic types. Motivational theories identify the social factors that drive people to commit deviance. Constraint theories identify the social factors that impose deviance (or conventional behavior) on people. Let us examine three examples of each type of theory (Brym, Lie 00 156).

When looking at explaining the causes of deviance, Robert Merton's strain theory, argues that cultures often teach people to value material success. Just as often, however, societies don't provide enough legitimate opportunities for everyone to succeed (Brym, Lie 00157). As a result, some people experience strain. Most of them will force themselves to adhere to social norms despite the strain (Merton called this "conformity"). The rest adapt in one of four ways. They may drop out of conventional society ("retreatism"). They may reject the goals of conventional society but continue to follow its rules ("ritualism"). They may protest against convention and support alternative values ("rebellion"). Or they may find alternative and illegitimate means of achieving their society's goals ("innovation")that is, they may become criminals. The American Dream of material success starkly contradicts the lack of opportunity available to poor youths, said Merton. As a result, poor youths sometimes engage in illegal means of attaining legitimate ends (Brym, Lie 00157).

A second type of motivational theory, known as sub-cultural theory, emphasized that adolescents are not alone in deciding to join gangs. Many similarly situated adolescents make the same kind of decision, rendering the formation and growth of the Crips and other gangs a collective adaptation to social conditions. Moreover, this collective adaptation involves the formation of a subculture with distinct norms and values. Members of this subculture reject the legitimate word that, they feel, has rejected them (Brym, Lie 00157). The literature emphasized three features of criminal subcultures. First, depending on the availability of different subcultures in their neighborhoods, delinquent youths may turn to different types of crime. In some areas, delinquent youths are recruited by organized crime. In areas that lack organized crime networks, delinquent youths are more likely to create violent gangs. Thus, the relative availability of different subcultures influences the type of criminal activity to which one turns (Brym, Lie 00157).

A second important feature of criminal subcultures is that their members typically spin out a whole series of rationalizations for their criminal activities. These justifications make their illegal activities appear morally acceptable and normal, at least to the members of the subculture (Brym, Lie 00157). Typically criminals deny personal responsibility for their actions. They condemn those who pass judgment on them. They claim their victims get what they deserve. And they appeal to higher loyalties, particularly to friends and family. The creation of such justifications and rationalizations enables criminals to clear their consciences and get on with the job. Sociologists call such rationalizations techniques of neutralization. In short, Techniques of neutralization are the rationalizations that deviants and criminals use to justify their activities. Techniques of neutralization make deviance seem normal, at least to the deviants themselves (Brym, Lie 0016). Finally, although deviants depart from mainstream culture, they are strict conformists when it comes to the norms of their own subculture. They tend to share the same beliefs, dress alike, eat similar food, and adopt the same mannerisms and speech patters (Brym, Lie 00158).

The main problem with strain and sub-cultural theories that they exaggerate the connection between class and crime. Many self-report surveys find, at most, a weak tendency for criminals to come disproportionately from lower classes. Some self-report surveys report no such tendency at all, especially among young people (adolescents) and for less serious types of deviance (Brym, Lie 00158). Apart from exaggerating the association between class and crime, strain and sub-cultural theories are problematic because they tell us nothing about which adaptation someone experiencing strain will choose. Even when deviant subcultures beckon ambitious adolescents who lack opportunities to succeed in life, only a minority joins up. Most adolescents experience strain and have the opportunity to join a gang reject the life of crime and become conformists and ritualists (Brym, Lie 00158).

Sociologist Edwin Sutherland, addressed both the class and choice problems by proposing a third motivational theory, which eh called the theory of Differential Association (Learning Theory). The theory of differential association is still one of the most influential ideas in the sociology of deviance. In Sutherland's view, a person learns to favor one adaptation over another due to his or her life experiences or socialization. Specifically, everyone is exposed to both deviant and non deviant values and behaviors as they grow up. If you happen to be exposed to more deviant than non deviant experiences chances are you will learn to become a deviant yourself. You will come to value a particular deviant lifestyle and consider it normal. Everything depends, then, on the exact mix of deviant and conformist influences a person faces (Brym, Lie 00158).

Significantly, the theory of differential association holds for people in all class positions. For instance, Sutherland applied the theory of differential association in his research on white-collar crime. He noted that white-collar criminals, like their counterparts on the street, learn their skills from associates and share a culture that rewards rule breaking and expresses contempt for the law (Brym, Lie 00158). Motivational theories ask how some people are driven to break norms and laws. Constraint theories in contrast, pay less attention to people's motivations.

Constraint theories by definition, identify the social factors that impose deviance (or conventional behavior) on people (Brym, Lie 00168). The Labeling theory suggests that deviance results not just from at the actions of the deviant but also from the responses of other, who define some actions as deviant and other actions as normal. If an adolescent misbehaves in high school a few times, teachers and the principal may punish him or her. However, his or her troubles really begin if the school authorities and the police label him or her a "delinquent." Surveillance of his or her actions will increase. Actions that authorities would normally not notice or would define as the little consequence are more likely to be interpreted as proof of his or her delinquency. The school may eventually socialize him or her into a deviant sub-culture (Brym, Lie 0015). Overtime, immersion in this deviant subculture may lead the adolescent to adopt "delinquent" as his or her master status, or overriding public identity. More easily than we may care to believe, what starts out as a few incidents of misbehavior can get amplified into a criminal career because of labeling (Brym, Lie 0015).

All motivational theories assume people are good and require special circumstances to make them bad. A popular type of constraint theory assumes people are bad and require special circumstances to make them good. For, according to Control theory, the rewards of deviance are many. The control theory holds that the rewards of deviance are ample. Therefore, nearly everyone would engage in deviance if they could get away with it. The degree to which people are prevented from violating norms and laws accounts for variations in the level of deviance (Brym, Lie 00168). Sociologists have applied control theory to gender differences in crime. They have shown that girls are less likely to engage in delinquency than boys because families typically exert more control over girls, supervising them more closely and socializing them to avoid risk. Sociologists have also applied control theory to different stages of life,. Just as weak controls exercised by family and school are important in explaining why some adolescents engage in deviant or criminal acts (Brym, Lie 00160). Labeling and control theories have little to say about why people regard certain kinds of activities as deviant in the first place. For the answer to that question, we must turn to conflict theory, a third type of constraint theory (Brym, Lie 00160).

The Conflict theory, in brief, maintains that the rich and the powerful impose deviant labels on the less powerful member of society, particularly those who challenge the existing social order. Meanwhile, they are usually able to use their money and influence to escape punishment for their own misdeeds. However, according to conflict theorists, definitions of deviance, and also punishment for misdeeds are always influenced by who's on top (Brym, Lie 00161). And so we see that many theories contribute to our understanding of the social caused of deviance and crime. Some forms of deviance are better explained by on theory than another. Different theories illuminate different aspects of the process by which people are motivated to break rules and get defined as rule breakers. Our overviews should make it clear that no on theory is best. Instead, taking many theories into account allows us to develop a fully rounded appreciation for the complex processes surrounding the social construction of deviance (Brym, Lie 00161).

Power is a crucial element in the social construction of deviance and crime. Power, is "the probability that one actor within a social relationship will be in a position to carry out his or her own will despite resistance" (Brym, Lie 00148). An "actor" may be an entire social group. Relatively powerful groups are generally able to create norms and laws that suit their interests. Relatively peerless social groups are usually unable to do so. The powerless, however, often struggle against stigmatization. If their power increases, they may succeed in their struggle (Brym, Lie 00148).

Brym, Robert J., and John Lie. Sociology Your Compass For a New World.

Thomson Learning, Inc., 00.

Headley, Susan. "Adolescent Research."

Youth Studies 16. (17)58.

Headley, Susan. "Families."

Youth Studies 16. (17)60.

Miller, J. Mitchell, Richard A. Wright, and David Dannels. "Is Deviance Dead? The Decline of a Sociological Research Specialization." American Sociologist . (001)17.

Sheehan, Norm. "Some Call It Culture."

Social Alternatives 0. (001).

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The Yakooza and Japanese Culture

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The 'Yakuza' represents the institutions of organised crime which have been around for over 00 years in Japan. The group holds just as much power if not more than the US Mafia and is unlike any other organised crime formation. The Japanese underworld has a particular kind of acceptance within Japanese society. A tolerance which has come from historic and cultural reasons.

The loose term of 'Yakuza' refers to a wide range of Japanese crime groups. The three largest groups today are the Kobe-based Yamaguchi-gumi and the Sumiyoshi-Rengo-kai and the Inagawa-kai, both headquartered in Tokyo. Japan has more than 86000 gang membersbelonging to 000 syndicates, with a turnover of more than $7 billion a year (Harvey, 14, p.567).

Many relate the Yakuza with its seedy underworld image, comprising of men with dark tattoos and cut-off fingers. But some do not view these groups quite so harshly and accept the Yakuza and their activities as a part of their culture. It can be seen that the Yakuza even seem to play out a distinct role in society, by resolving civil disputes that would be extremely difficult to pursue through the Japanese legal system.

This acceptance is seen at almost all levels of society. Throughout Japanese history, the Yakuza have had ties within politics, the private sector, police affairs and even with citizens matters. This networked relationship structure can be seen to arise in many Japanese businesses.An interesting factor is that the Yakuzas influence seems quite heavy in Japanese society, yet the sensitive nature of its existence has meant that relatively little documentation is made about them.It may appear that as long as these mobsters prove not to be too disruptive, society will tend to overlook their lucrative activities. The public in many cases have even come to rely on the Yakuza to satisfy certain economic, political, or legal needs, that the government can not, or will not, address.

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Is it the feautures of Japanese culture which have led to such an agreement between the Yakuza and society? Are they really accepted? Or is it simply a matter of being unable to do anything about the situation, which has heralded this movement?

In addressing these questions, it is necessary to view cultural differences and the history of the Yakuza in Japan.

Cultural differences between Japan and the world may give reasons as to why the Yakuza are not seen as so unnacceptable in society.For instance one of the main reasons that the yakuza can operate aboveground is because the groups are not seen as illegal.There are no statutes in Japan that prohibit racketeering or money laundering. Japanese law enforcement officials have been practically powerless to prevent the yakuzas growing involvement in mainstream business and financial circles.Organized crime experts also note that weaknesses in Japans criminal law also have made it difficult to prosecute criminals in the post World War II era (Hayes, 1, p.06).However, these weaknesses may arise due to cultural differences.For example in the West, prestigious gifts given to politicians (under most circumstances) would be seen as bribery.But, this activity held in Japan may be interpreted as a gesture under the Omiyage tradition. (Gift giving).

One answer to how Japan has became so tolerant of its underworld organisation appears to lie in the fact that the Yakuza had been 'romanticised' in terms of its samurai noblesse, which rose from its feudal history.

The origins of organised criminal gangs can be traced back into the Tokugawa era as early as 161, when a group of people known as kabuki-mono (crazy ones), gained observance from local officials.

These Shogunate servants were forced into unemployment during the Tokugawa peace, leading them to become Ronin (a masterless samurai). Wandering throughout Japan, many had turned into bandits, looting towns and villages and they made a habit of antagonizing and terrorizing anyone at their leisure. ( Kaplan & Dubro, 186, p.14)

While the kabuki-mono are estimated to be the true ascendants of the Japanese Underworld, most yakuza refer to the machi-yokko (Servants of the town) as their ancestors. This group is said to have defended the villages and towns from the Kabuki-mono, and they consisted of shopkeepers, innkeepers, laborers, homeless warriors and other ronin.The machi-yakko are today known as folk heroes, with tales akin to the legend of Robin Hood. They have been subjects of stories and plays in Japan. (Kaplan & Dubro,186, p14-16)

These tales have influenced the publics perception on the history of organized crime in Japan. Often highly embellished, these tales were about social victims becoming heroes or outlaws who lived with dignity.Today, they have left the Yakuza with a noble heritage. The 'samurai' has been given legendary status analogous to the Western 'cowboy'.But is it this imagery that has led the Japanese to accept the Yakuza as another institution in society?

Another interpretation of history tells us another story of how the hidden agenda of the Yakuza came into being, one that follows the Yakuzas numerous relationships with institutions.These organizations are structured much the same way to the pattern of Japanese group relations with strong internal control, an ethic seen in many sectors of Japanese society. (Eisenstadt, 16, p.111).These relationships usually portray the Yakuza as performing a form of covert social service.

The relationship between the institutions rose in Tokugawa.In fact, the earliest yakuza did not surface until the middle to late 1700s. The true ancestors ofmodern Yakuza can be split into two groups, the bakuto (traditional gamblers) and the tekiya (street peddlers). These groups comprised of people from the same background poor, landless, and misfits.

The bakuto in actual fact, were initially recruited by the government in an attempt to get money back from workers (through gambling). They remained mostly along the highways and towns, and the tekiya operated in the markets and fairs of Japan. A third group, the gurentai (hoodlums) has been added after the post war period.

Kaplan and Dubro (186) provide a few of the captured historical accounts of the development of the yakuza's ties to the political world. According to them, ties between crime groups and ultranationalist politicians developed in the 10s. These close relations continued after the war, due in part, to the decision by Occupation authorities to use right wing activists (and their yakuza allies) to help secure Japan against possible left-wing uprisings.(Kaplan and Dubro,186, p.5.)

Today, various reports show ties still exist with certain politicians. It is assumed that these Yakuza members are often employed as fund-raisers, bodyguards and campaign workers. Like the police, some politicians simply regard the Japanese mob as performing a necessary service, an attitude that has allowed the yakuza to continue their operations "above- ground" and unfettered. (Kaplan and Dubro,186,p.116)

Relations between Japanese police and the yakuza are also complex. Some authorities have attributed the apparent hesitancy of Japanese police to crack down effectively on the yakuza because of their ability to function as an alternative police force. Japanese police are terrified by unorganized crime (Eisenstadt, p.108, 16).

Theres so little street crime because gangsters control the turf and they provide security. If some hoods come around the neighborhood and start making trouble, chances are the yakuza will reach them first. Japanese police prefer the existence of organized crime to its absence.

(Kaplan and Dubro, 186,p. 16.)

This is not to suggest that Japanese police completely look the other way when it comes to the mob. Over the years Japanese law enforcement officials, have staged numerous raids on various yakuza offices. However, these assaults have tended to be more a show of police muscle than a genuine attempt to shut down gangster operations.

It appears that the Yakuza perform a type of social service. One way of observing this is that the crime groups pen potentially disruptive societal elements and, through their emphasis on oyabun-kobun relations, help to discipline ruffians and minimise violent acts against ordinary people.

This oyabun- kobun relationship is resilient in many institutions in Japan and is a unique feature of the Yakuzas family structure. The hierarchical ties and relations between superior and subordinates in the Yakuza seem to be immersed to its utmost extent.

Oyabun-kobun, which literally means parent-child, is a term used to describe a dependent relationship between two people.In the Yakuza structure, the oyabun (Yakuza leader) provides protection and guidance to the kobun(Yakuza member), who reciprocates with loyalty and service.

This has maintained a level of discipline and order within Japanese crime groups that some Western law enforcement officials contend they never have seen in the U.S. or the European underworld. This level of loyalty can be represented in the custom of finger cutting; Yubitsume. This procedure originated from the Bakuto and signified a weakening of the hand (as the gambler could not hold his sword as firmly). It was performed as an act of apology to the oyabun for any misdeeds.

Has this hierarchical relationship between the Yakuza and societys misfits credited society? And furthermore, is this another factor which influences societys acceptance of the Yakuza? Well, some observers even credit the yakuza with helping to keep Japans crime rate one of the lowest in the world. Although other analysts believe that in Japan, much crime goes unreported, and ironically, it is the crimes of the Yakuza which go unnoticed, particularly in areas such as bribery and extortion (Kaplan and Dubro, 186, p. 18).

Up to this point, it seems that some Japanese people have accepted this heroic picture of the Yakuza. But others see a change in attitude toward the Yakuza, by the public beingincreasingly fed up with gang-related violence and apparent Yakuza collusion with big business and politicians.

And to further insist that most Japanese view the Yakuza as the 'unlikely heroes' of society, and that they give in to its 'Robin Hood' imagery would be false.

Most see the Yakuza's 'seedy activities' as the cause for many of Japans social problems. Like most growth-oriented enterprises, the yakuza have not confined their illegal and legal business activities.(Reischauer, 188, p.161). In the late 160s the Japanese mob took advantage of the sharp rise in Japanese tourism and began organizing sex tours" to various countries in Southeast Asia. The yakuza also began to recruit or, more probably, to coerce women from Southeast Asian countries to work as hostesses in mob-controlled brothels in Japans mizu shobai or water trade (Louis, 1, p.18). The overseas push proved similarly lucrative for drug trading, primarily in Korean and Taiwan.Gun trafficking also evolved into a profitable activity since the sale of guns is controlled so strictly in Japan.

So, rather than being a social champion, they are more or less viewed as a social disease. The origin of the term 'yakusa' itself derived from a meaning of 'usefulness'. It was then used by gamblers to denote a worthless outcome in a card game. 8-- or ya-ku-sa was the worst possible score (Kaplan & Dubro,p. 4, 186).

Perhaps it is because of the weak criminal system and its ties with almost every institution (leading to the corruption of that institution) in society, that the Japanese find themselves defenseless against the taint of the Yakuza.

Even the US forces in the post war attempted to dismiss the threat of the Yakuza, but soon saw that they were well organized and continued to operate under two oyabun and were supported by unidentified high-level goverment officials. They admitted defeat in 150, as they realized that they could not protect the Japanese people from the Yakuza. (Kaplan, p4-5)

In the post-war years, the Yakuza themselves went through change.They became more violent, both on the individual and collective scales.Their appearances also changed, taking American movie gangsters as their influence. They started wearing sunglasses, dark suits and ties with white shirts, and began to sport crewcuts. (Reischaur, 188, p161)

In fact, the traditional Yakuza themselves seem worried about the modern day Yakuza.In Louis' (1, p.184) interview with a retired Yakuza,it is revealed that the general thinkingof the older Yakuza members is that today's members have lost their sense of compassion or jingi (moral code).

In conclusion, whichever view one takes on how the Yakuza became such a silent yet important factor in Japanese society, the fact remains that they are here to stay.

The economic prowess of the Yakuza and its continual growth in members is an issue which needs to be conceived.

However, the anti-social activities of the Yakuza purpose bigger problems which first need to be addressed, particularly if the Nation wishes to advance for all members in society.One particular issue which comes to mind is that of gender. In a society where women seem to be advancing in most institutions, this is not the case within the Yakuza structure. The role of women is truly disadvantaged here with the only recognised woman, with any form of power being the Oyabun's wife.

As mentioned earlier, any issues concerning the Yakuza seem to be very concealed. There is little documentation made on the Yakuza in Japanese literature, let alone English literature. Though their semi-recognised existence is semi-legitimised through various arrangements with institutions. The Yakuza have become tightly interwoven into the overall network of Japanese society. Truly they are a force yet to be fully recognised and perhaps the first step lies daringly, in uncovering this blanketed entity.

Bibliography

1.David E Kaplan & Alec Dubro,Yakuza The Explosive Account of Japan's Criminal Underworld, 186, Addison-Wesley, USA.

.S. N. Eisenstadt, Japanese Civilization A Comparative View, 16, Chicago Press, London.

.Robert Harvey, The Undefeated , 14, Macmillan, London.

4.Lisa Louis, Butterflies Of The Night, 1, Tengu Books, New York

5.J. A Abecasis- Phillips Doing Business With The Japanese, 14, New York.

Edwin D Reischauer The Japanese Today, 188, Harvard, USA.

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Comparison of Epic of Gilgamesh to Old Testamanet

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The Flood Stories The Validity Debate Continues

In the Epic of Gilgamesh, it articulates how, For six days and six nights the winds blew, torrent and tempest and flood overwhelmed the world, tempest and flood raged together like warring hosts (Sandars 111). Alternatively, in the Old Testament, it says, All the fountains of the great deep [were] broken up, and the windows of heaven were opened . . . And the flood was forty days upon the earth; and the waters increased; . . . and the ark went upon the face of the waters.(Holy Bible, Genesis 711b, 17a, 18b). In addition, the story of the Flood in Metamorphoses elaborates on the fact that, Neptune called his river all, and told them, very briefly, to lose their violence, open their houses […] His trident struck the shuddering earth; it opened the way for the rush of waters (Humphries 11). Which flood story should readers confide in with validity? Better yet, which flood story is the refinement of the other? Many critics settle on the work of literature that best explains how, when and why the flood occurred.

Would it be justified to classify these poetic writings in terms of accurateness and irregularity?

The three works of written documentation in the Epic of Gilgamesh, The Old Testament, and Metamorphoses detail a flood story with resemblance and dissimilarity. Nevertheless, one work should not be judged by what it is lacking in information to the other works of literature. For example, it is quite clear that the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Book of Metamorphoses is a more elaborated diction of the Flood than in the Old Testament. All three books should not be distinguished as the originator and the secondary enhancement! One should take all three books as contrasting forms of linguistic translations that compliment the same flood story, with minor discrepancies. The disagreement lies not in diction, the state of confusion lies at the root of cultural diversity and historical background of all three works.

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Culturalism is defined by the shaped beliefs that are enculturated by the norms of society through political representation. The moldings of a culture involve race, sexual orientation, socio-economic status, language and spiritual inclination. The main differences in the translation of the Flood in all three books is due to the religious disproportions involved. The Epic of Gilgamesh, The Old Testament, and Metamorphoses differ in language, custom and traditions. For example, the divine nature of Gods in the Epic of Gilgamesh and Metamorphoses conflict with the monotheistic beliefs of the Hebrews, Middle Easterners and Romans.

The actual literature to this day is missing miniscule detailed evidence of the flood. However, the findings of the Assyrian Tablets (Babylonian writings) still is able to detail the Flood in its slightest entirety. The Flood analysis, as depicted in the Epic of Gilgamesh, originates from the Sumerian Dynastic Age. Five city states primarily functioned before the kingship were let down from the heavens to rule over mankind. Using the mythological settings of the Archaic Sumerian civilization, the Gods were the permanent replacements of mortals on the throne of the city states. Thus, the goal of mortals in the South Persian Gulf of Mesopotamia was to reach immortality. However, the God Enlils moral reasoning for the flood was that the uproar of mankind is intolerable and sleep is no longer possible by reason of the babel (Sandars 108). Therefore, the cultural background of the monotheistic Hebrews of the Old Testament and the Babylonian culture seem to agree on one front, that the wickedness of man had taken over earth. Consequently, mankind needed to be exterminated, due to the increased chaotic vibe of the times.

The symbolism of the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Old Testament share uniformity in the idea to build a boat. In the Epic of Gilgamesh, Ea warns, Reed-house […] O man of Shurrupak, son of Ubara-Tutu; tear down your house and build a boat, abandon possessions and look for life, despise worldly goods and save your soul alive. In the Old Testament, Noah is also asked by God to build a boat as well, in hopes of being blessed by God and being rewarded with earths flesh as meat for Noah and his family. This is illustrated in Genesis chapter nine, when God says to Noah, Be fruitful and increase in number and fill the earth. The fear and dread of you will fall upon all the beasts of the earth and all the birds of the air […] Everything that lives and moves will be food for you (Book Of Genesis1-4). The thought of rejuvenating ones life in a more positive direction, fleeing ones gratification from materialistic goals and filling ones mind with spiritual blessings is encouraged in both stories.

However, the difference of cultural motives in both stories clash to change the main purpose of the building of the boat and conclusion as well. The Babylonian cultures reward was the gift of immortality and rather self absorbed in comparison to the Hebrew cultures selfless reward of eternal life and blessings for all mankind. The monotheistic God in the Old Testament seemed to be more grateful then the Gods in the Epic of Gilgamesh. For example in the Old Testament, the Lord says, Never again will all life be cut off by the waters of a flood; never again will there be a flood to destroy the earth (Book of Genesis11). Conversely, Enlil behaves like a spoiled child who feels he or she is so special, that everything should go his or her way! Enlil notes Has any of these mortals escaped? Not one was to have survived the destruction (Sandars 11). The sweet-voiced Queen of Heaven complains, Alas the days of old are turned to dust because I commanded evil; why did I command this evil […] I commanded wars to destroy the people, but are they not my people, for I brought them forth? Now like the spawn of fish they float by the ocean (Sandars 110). How can this unappreciative Queen of heaven, dare to weep about the destruction of mankind, when she was the instigator of the whole mess in the first place! The divine Gods seem like timid ingrates that yield satisfaction for inspiration. In order to analyze the humble and understanding God in the Old Testament, in sharp contrast to the Divine Gods of Gilgamesh, one must first seek the historical inspiration of both Gods.

Lets compare the mythology of the divine Gods to the ritual and religion of the monotheistic God. The locality of the flood events in the Epic of Gilgamesh was set around Mesopotamia. The Western psycho-analysis framework may have influenced the story of the Flood in Gilgamesh, since westernization influences rather wide ranging terms such as art, literature, drama, psychology, medicine, astronomy and astrology, and film, among others (New American Standard Bible. Nashville, TN Broadman 10). One aspect of spiritualism that Mesopotamian and the Babylonian culture were denied of, was a stable covenant with the divinity of Gods. The lack of grace, peace and faith in a promised plan, perhaps lead to insecurity and inner struggles within thyself. Thus, the lack of gratitude and humility of the Gods in the Epic of Gilgamesh compliments their lack of a concrete belief. However, the Hebrew culture stresses gratitude, fear and humility, since God has already promised his people a futuristic plan to be established in due time. The Book of Revelations promotes this when it states, Grace and peace to you from him who is, and who was, and who is to come…. Thus meaning, Jesus Christ is to come to save his people from their sinful nature and into the heavens, were their fruitful blessings will be offered to them.(Revelations 1)

Where did man originate? When was the time and existence of the flood? Who or what was the artist that drew the world then and now? The divine myths of Ovids work of literature, Metamorphoses is similar to the Epic of Gilgamesh, in that both works implement the structuring of space equals emphasis. Both works represent beautiful poems that explain the questions of the flood in elaborated detail. Many would criticize the Old Testaments explaining of the flood for being to simplistic, systematic and organized. In spite of this, let us not cease to forget that the account of the flood in the Old Testamant was written probably around 1500 B.C. While Ovids, Metamorphoses was written somewhere between 8 and 17 A.D. The Old Testament is written plainly, since the monotheistic God of the Hebrews had already formed a rock solid covenant with his descendants as of today. While the Book of Metamorphoses struggles to find some form of validity in persuading the reader that the divine Gods had something to do with the flood. The Bible states that it takes the Hebrew God six days to complete his creation while there is no specific time frame for creation in Ovids writing of the flood. The Old Testaments description of the completion of creation takes thirty-one verses of Hebrew monotheism, while the Book of Metamorphoses intricately details the creation story in seven stanzas, a poetic compilation of eighty lines (The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces. Ed. Maynard Mack. New York Norton 187, pg 54-560.).

The inaptness in intricate detailing is evident in both the Old Testament and the Book of Metamorphoses. The Norton Anthology illustrates this in Ovids, holds up, holds in the land, while, in Genesis, the land {separates} the waters from the waters (54; 1). Ironically, Ovids Metamorphoses seems to rush the creation of the world by stating that the air,land, light and water form at one instance, when God, or kindlier Nature, [settles all](The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces. Ed. Maynard Mack. New York Norton 187, pg 54-560.). Take note that the Book of Genesis states, In the beginning God {creates} the heavens and the earth. Light, vegetation, land, stars, moon, fish, animals and man are created on separate days.

However, there are also similarities between both stories that help continue to withstand the test of time. In both accounts, each describe a shapelessness and the earth being formless and void ((The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces. Ed. Maynard Mack. New York Norton 187, pg 54-560, Book of Genesis 1). In addition there is no sun to light the universe, (Ovid 54) so darkness over the surface of the deep {Genesis 1).However, the more opinionated version of the Book of Metamorphoses carries no detail on the time frame of the flood in its entirety. In the Book of Genesis, it rains for forty days and forty nights (71). The more concrete version of the flood in the Old Testament is illustrated in the way the prevailing rain is described. In the Book of Genesis, it states, the water {prevails} upon the earth for one hundred and fifty days (74).

Although the Book of Genesis efficiently details the periodic time frame for the creation and the flood, the difference of descriptiveness from the Old Testament andMetamorphoses becomes evident. The Book of Genesis notes The waters rose and increased greatly on the earth […] Every living thing that moved on earth perished-birds, livestock, wild animals, all the creatures that swarm over the earth, and all mankind […] Every living thing on the face of the earth was wiped out; men and animals and the creatures that move along the ground and the birds of the air were wiped from the earth. Only Noah was left, and those with him in the ark (718-). In contrast, Humphries translation of Ovids Metamorphose notes The leaping rivers flood over the great plains. Not only orchards are swept away, not only grain and cattle […] Some poor fellow seizes a hill-top […] Someone catches Fish in the top of an elm tree, or an anchor drags in green meadow-land […] the dolphins invade the woods and brushes against the oak trees….etc It is obvious that Metamorphoses openly forces the reader to imagine and visualize the Flood story. The use of active prose and sensory linguistics in Metamorphoses shows the persuasive and intricate detailing of Metamorphoses. The more established, time -detailed and stable analysis of the Book of Genesis differentiates from the showy display of the Book of Metamorphoses, that goes out of reach to achieve the confidence of its readers.

The conclusive detailing of the Old Testament and the Book of Metamorphoses are similar in wide contrast to the Epic of Gilgamesh. The divine gods in the Gilgamesh seem rattled by the destruction of the flood. Thus, they concluded the flood scenes with bitter and revengeful hearts. However, in the Book of Metamorphoses, Deucalion and Pyrrha, the two survivors, throw stones that seem to remake mankind in a new world order. The stones of Deucalion, reborn man and the stones Pyrrha ( Deucalions wife, cousin, partner) throws, rekindle the making of women. In chapter nine, verse one to seven in the Book of Genesis, it describes how the earth is populated by Noah, his wife, Shem, Ham, and Japeth in retrospect to the flood. The Norton Anthology of Ovids Metamorphoses describes how the animals of the earth form, evolutionize, from water and heat amongst the mud (55) .In the Book of Genesis, chapter eight verse seventeen, the earth begins to repopulate themselves. Hence, in wide contrast to the Epic of Gilgamesh, one family is chosen to continue the existence of the human race. The monotheistic God of the Hebrews chooses Noah and his family, while the deities of Metamorphoses chooses Deucalion and Pyrrha. Although there are differences in the way the conclusive details of the flood are told, both the Book of Metamorphoses and the Old Testament emphasize how disobedience from God or gods sent forth a flood to destroy mankind. Thus, both accounts describe the actualization of the society to worship and show reverence to the God, or deity gods in ultimate control.

All three works that describe the flood share similarities and differences in detailing the events that take place. They differentiate on the varied messages they place emphasis on. The main distinction have to do with spiritual diversity between distinct cultures. It is because of these variations in writing and technique, that each of these poems have acquired and maintained the respect they truly deserve through years of evaluation and criticism. Lets take each account for what its worth and not what it lacks!

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