Causes of Adolescent Deviant Behavior

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Deviance involves breaking a norm. If you were the only male in a college classroom full of women, you probably wouldn't be considered deviant. However, if a man were to use the woman's restroom, we would regard him as deviant. That is because deviance is not merely departure from the statistical average. It implies violating an accepted rule of behavior. Many deviant acts go unnoticed or are considered so trivial they warrant no punishment. However, people who are observed committing more serious acts of deviance are typically punished, either informally or formally (Brym, Lie 00 145).

Informal punishment is mild. It may involve raised eyebrows, gossip, ostracism, shaming, or stigmatization. When people are stigmatized, they are negatively evaluated because of a marker that distinguishes them from others (Brym, Lie 00145).Formal punishment results from people breaking laws, which are norms stipulated and enforced by government bodies. For example, criminals may be formally punished by having serve time in prison or perform community service (Brym, Lie 00146). Sociologist John Hagan usefully classifies various types of deviance and crime along three dimensions. The first dimension is the severity of the social response. At one extreme, homicide and other very serious forms of deviance result in the most severe negative reactions, such as life imprisonment or capital punishment. At the other end of the spectrum, some people may do little more than express mild disapproval of slight deviations from a norm, such as wearing a nose ring (Brym, Lie 00146).

The second dimension of deviance and crime is the perceived harmfulness of the deviant or criminal act. While some deviant acts, such as rape, are generally seen as very harmful, others, such as tattooing, are commonly regarded as being of little consequence. Note that actual harmfulness is not the only issue here. Perceived harmfulness is (Brym, Lie 00146). The third characteristic of deviance is the degree of public agreement about whether an act should be considered deviant. For example, people disagree about whether smoking marijuana should be considered a crime, especially since it may have therapeutic value in treating pain associated with cancer (Brym, Lie 00146).

According to Norm Sheehan (001) in assessing deviant acts committed in our social group we use causal explanations, what made one of us do this? Explanations of internal causation require an evaluation of our moral center, because in attempting to understand deviant behavior we must address our culpability through affiliation to someone like us who has behaved this way. Therefore, within a social group the causal aspects of deviance from a moral norm focus on the individual deviance and the depravity of the perpetrator who must be condemned. This condemnation of the individual allows more venial conclusions to be made concerning the culpability of the group. The perpetration of child abuse within the dominant culture by a priest, for example, does not lead to general call to ban religion. The priest is condemned for what he did, because of who he is.

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What makes the criminal life so attractive to so many young men and women? In general, why do deviance and crime occur at all? Sociologists have proposed dozens of explanations. However, we can group them into two basic types. Motivational theories identify the social factors that drive people to commit deviance. Constraint theories identify the social factors that impose deviance (or conventional behavior) on people. Let us examine three examples of each type of theory (Brym, Lie 00 156).

When looking at explaining the causes of deviance, Robert Merton's strain theory, argues that cultures often teach people to value material success. Just as often, however, societies don't provide enough legitimate opportunities for everyone to succeed (Brym, Lie 00157). As a result, some people experience strain. Most of them will force themselves to adhere to social norms despite the strain (Merton called this "conformity"). The rest adapt in one of four ways. They may drop out of conventional society ("retreatism"). They may reject the goals of conventional society but continue to follow its rules ("ritualism"). They may protest against convention and support alternative values ("rebellion"). Or they may find alternative and illegitimate means of achieving their society's goals ("innovation")that is, they may become criminals. The American Dream of material success starkly contradicts the lack of opportunity available to poor youths, said Merton. As a result, poor youths sometimes engage in illegal means of attaining legitimate ends (Brym, Lie 00157).

A second type of motivational theory, known as sub-cultural theory, emphasized that adolescents are not alone in deciding to join gangs. Many similarly situated adolescents make the same kind of decision, rendering the formation and growth of the Crips and other gangs a collective adaptation to social conditions. Moreover, this collective adaptation involves the formation of a subculture with distinct norms and values. Members of this subculture reject the legitimate word that, they feel, has rejected them (Brym, Lie 00157). The literature emphasized three features of criminal subcultures. First, depending on the availability of different subcultures in their neighborhoods, delinquent youths may turn to different types of crime. In some areas, delinquent youths are recruited by organized crime. In areas that lack organized crime networks, delinquent youths are more likely to create violent gangs. Thus, the relative availability of different subcultures influences the type of criminal activity to which one turns (Brym, Lie 00157).

A second important feature of criminal subcultures is that their members typically spin out a whole series of rationalizations for their criminal activities. These justifications make their illegal activities appear morally acceptable and normal, at least to the members of the subculture (Brym, Lie 00157). Typically criminals deny personal responsibility for their actions. They condemn those who pass judgment on them. They claim their victims get what they deserve. And they appeal to higher loyalties, particularly to friends and family. The creation of such justifications and rationalizations enables criminals to clear their consciences and get on with the job. Sociologists call such rationalizations techniques of neutralization. In short, Techniques of neutralization are the rationalizations that deviants and criminals use to justify their activities. Techniques of neutralization make deviance seem normal, at least to the deviants themselves (Brym, Lie 0016). Finally, although deviants depart from mainstream culture, they are strict conformists when it comes to the norms of their own subculture. They tend to share the same beliefs, dress alike, eat similar food, and adopt the same mannerisms and speech patters (Brym, Lie 00158).

The main problem with strain and sub-cultural theories that they exaggerate the connection between class and crime. Many self-report surveys find, at most, a weak tendency for criminals to come disproportionately from lower classes. Some self-report surveys report no such tendency at all, especially among young people (adolescents) and for less serious types of deviance (Brym, Lie 00158). Apart from exaggerating the association between class and crime, strain and sub-cultural theories are problematic because they tell us nothing about which adaptation someone experiencing strain will choose. Even when deviant subcultures beckon ambitious adolescents who lack opportunities to succeed in life, only a minority joins up. Most adolescents experience strain and have the opportunity to join a gang reject the life of crime and become conformists and ritualists (Brym, Lie 00158).

Sociologist Edwin Sutherland, addressed both the class and choice problems by proposing a third motivational theory, which eh called the theory of Differential Association (Learning Theory). The theory of differential association is still one of the most influential ideas in the sociology of deviance. In Sutherland's view, a person learns to favor one adaptation over another due to his or her life experiences or socialization. Specifically, everyone is exposed to both deviant and non deviant values and behaviors as they grow up. If you happen to be exposed to more deviant than non deviant experiences chances are you will learn to become a deviant yourself. You will come to value a particular deviant lifestyle and consider it normal. Everything depends, then, on the exact mix of deviant and conformist influences a person faces (Brym, Lie 00158).

Significantly, the theory of differential association holds for people in all class positions. For instance, Sutherland applied the theory of differential association in his research on white-collar crime. He noted that white-collar criminals, like their counterparts on the street, learn their skills from associates and share a culture that rewards rule breaking and expresses contempt for the law (Brym, Lie 00158). Motivational theories ask how some people are driven to break norms and laws. Constraint theories in contrast, pay less attention to people's motivations.

Constraint theories by definition, identify the social factors that impose deviance (or conventional behavior) on people (Brym, Lie 00168). The Labeling theory suggests that deviance results not just from at the actions of the deviant but also from the responses of other, who define some actions as deviant and other actions as normal. If an adolescent misbehaves in high school a few times, teachers and the principal may punish him or her. However, his or her troubles really begin if the school authorities and the police label him or her a "delinquent." Surveillance of his or her actions will increase. Actions that authorities would normally not notice or would define as the little consequence are more likely to be interpreted as proof of his or her delinquency. The school may eventually socialize him or her into a deviant sub-culture (Brym, Lie 0015). Overtime, immersion in this deviant subculture may lead the adolescent to adopt "delinquent" as his or her master status, or overriding public identity. More easily than we may care to believe, what starts out as a few incidents of misbehavior can get amplified into a criminal career because of labeling (Brym, Lie 0015).

All motivational theories assume people are good and require special circumstances to make them bad. A popular type of constraint theory assumes people are bad and require special circumstances to make them good. For, according to Control theory, the rewards of deviance are many. The control theory holds that the rewards of deviance are ample. Therefore, nearly everyone would engage in deviance if they could get away with it. The degree to which people are prevented from violating norms and laws accounts for variations in the level of deviance (Brym, Lie 00168). Sociologists have applied control theory to gender differences in crime. They have shown that girls are less likely to engage in delinquency than boys because families typically exert more control over girls, supervising them more closely and socializing them to avoid risk. Sociologists have also applied control theory to different stages of life,. Just as weak controls exercised by family and school are important in explaining why some adolescents engage in deviant or criminal acts (Brym, Lie 00160). Labeling and control theories have little to say about why people regard certain kinds of activities as deviant in the first place. For the answer to that question, we must turn to conflict theory, a third type of constraint theory (Brym, Lie 00160).

The Conflict theory, in brief, maintains that the rich and the powerful impose deviant labels on the less powerful member of society, particularly those who challenge the existing social order. Meanwhile, they are usually able to use their money and influence to escape punishment for their own misdeeds. However, according to conflict theorists, definitions of deviance, and also punishment for misdeeds are always influenced by who's on top (Brym, Lie 00161). And so we see that many theories contribute to our understanding of the social caused of deviance and crime. Some forms of deviance are better explained by on theory than another. Different theories illuminate different aspects of the process by which people are motivated to break rules and get defined as rule breakers. Our overviews should make it clear that no on theory is best. Instead, taking many theories into account allows us to develop a fully rounded appreciation for the complex processes surrounding the social construction of deviance (Brym, Lie 00161).

Power is a crucial element in the social construction of deviance and crime. Power, is "the probability that one actor within a social relationship will be in a position to carry out his or her own will despite resistance" (Brym, Lie 00148). An "actor" may be an entire social group. Relatively powerful groups are generally able to create norms and laws that suit their interests. Relatively peerless social groups are usually unable to do so. The powerless, however, often struggle against stigmatization. If their power increases, they may succeed in their struggle (Brym, Lie 00148).

Brym, Robert J., and John Lie. Sociology Your Compass For a New World.

Thomson Learning, Inc., 00.

Headley, Susan. "Adolescent Research."

Youth Studies 16. (17)58.

Headley, Susan. "Families."

Youth Studies 16. (17)60.

Miller, J. Mitchell, Richard A. Wright, and David Dannels. "Is Deviance Dead? The Decline of a Sociological Research Specialization." American Sociologist . (001)17.

Sheehan, Norm. "Some Call It Culture."

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The Yakooza and Japanese Culture

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The 'Yakuza' represents the institutions of organised crime which have been around for over 00 years in Japan. The group holds just as much power if not more than the US Mafia and is unlike any other organised crime formation. The Japanese underworld has a particular kind of acceptance within Japanese society. A tolerance which has come from historic and cultural reasons.

The loose term of 'Yakuza' refers to a wide range of Japanese crime groups. The three largest groups today are the Kobe-based Yamaguchi-gumi and the Sumiyoshi-Rengo-kai and the Inagawa-kai, both headquartered in Tokyo. Japan has more than 86000 gang membersbelonging to 000 syndicates, with a turnover of more than $7 billion a year (Harvey, 14, p.567).

Many relate the Yakuza with its seedy underworld image, comprising of men with dark tattoos and cut-off fingers. But some do not view these groups quite so harshly and accept the Yakuza and their activities as a part of their culture. It can be seen that the Yakuza even seem to play out a distinct role in society, by resolving civil disputes that would be extremely difficult to pursue through the Japanese legal system.

This acceptance is seen at almost all levels of society. Throughout Japanese history, the Yakuza have had ties within politics, the private sector, police affairs and even with citizens matters. This networked relationship structure can be seen to arise in many Japanese businesses.An interesting factor is that the Yakuzas influence seems quite heavy in Japanese society, yet the sensitive nature of its existence has meant that relatively little documentation is made about them.It may appear that as long as these mobsters prove not to be too disruptive, society will tend to overlook their lucrative activities. The public in many cases have even come to rely on the Yakuza to satisfy certain economic, political, or legal needs, that the government can not, or will not, address.

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Is it the feautures of Japanese culture which have led to such an agreement between the Yakuza and society? Are they really accepted? Or is it simply a matter of being unable to do anything about the situation, which has heralded this movement?

In addressing these questions, it is necessary to view cultural differences and the history of the Yakuza in Japan.

Cultural differences between Japan and the world may give reasons as to why the Yakuza are not seen as so unnacceptable in society.For instance one of the main reasons that the yakuza can operate aboveground is because the groups are not seen as illegal.There are no statutes in Japan that prohibit racketeering or money laundering. Japanese law enforcement officials have been practically powerless to prevent the yakuzas growing involvement in mainstream business and financial circles.Organized crime experts also note that weaknesses in Japans criminal law also have made it difficult to prosecute criminals in the post World War II era (Hayes, 1, p.06).However, these weaknesses may arise due to cultural differences.For example in the West, prestigious gifts given to politicians (under most circumstances) would be seen as bribery.But, this activity held in Japan may be interpreted as a gesture under the Omiyage tradition. (Gift giving).

One answer to how Japan has became so tolerant of its underworld organisation appears to lie in the fact that the Yakuza had been 'romanticised' in terms of its samurai noblesse, which rose from its feudal history.

The origins of organised criminal gangs can be traced back into the Tokugawa era as early as 161, when a group of people known as kabuki-mono (crazy ones), gained observance from local officials.

These Shogunate servants were forced into unemployment during the Tokugawa peace, leading them to become Ronin (a masterless samurai). Wandering throughout Japan, many had turned into bandits, looting towns and villages and they made a habit of antagonizing and terrorizing anyone at their leisure. ( Kaplan & Dubro, 186, p.14)

While the kabuki-mono are estimated to be the true ascendants of the Japanese Underworld, most yakuza refer to the machi-yokko (Servants of the town) as their ancestors. This group is said to have defended the villages and towns from the Kabuki-mono, and they consisted of shopkeepers, innkeepers, laborers, homeless warriors and other ronin.The machi-yakko are today known as folk heroes, with tales akin to the legend of Robin Hood. They have been subjects of stories and plays in Japan. (Kaplan & Dubro,186, p14-16)

These tales have influenced the publics perception on the history of organized crime in Japan. Often highly embellished, these tales were about social victims becoming heroes or outlaws who lived with dignity.Today, they have left the Yakuza with a noble heritage. The 'samurai' has been given legendary status analogous to the Western 'cowboy'.But is it this imagery that has led the Japanese to accept the Yakuza as another institution in society?

Another interpretation of history tells us another story of how the hidden agenda of the Yakuza came into being, one that follows the Yakuzas numerous relationships with institutions.These organizations are structured much the same way to the pattern of Japanese group relations with strong internal control, an ethic seen in many sectors of Japanese society. (Eisenstadt, 16, p.111).These relationships usually portray the Yakuza as performing a form of covert social service.

The relationship between the institutions rose in Tokugawa.In fact, the earliest yakuza did not surface until the middle to late 1700s. The true ancestors ofmodern Yakuza can be split into two groups, the bakuto (traditional gamblers) and the tekiya (street peddlers). These groups comprised of people from the same background poor, landless, and misfits.

The bakuto in actual fact, were initially recruited by the government in an attempt to get money back from workers (through gambling). They remained mostly along the highways and towns, and the tekiya operated in the markets and fairs of Japan. A third group, the gurentai (hoodlums) has been added after the post war period.

Kaplan and Dubro (186) provide a few of the captured historical accounts of the development of the yakuza's ties to the political world. According to them, ties between crime groups and ultranationalist politicians developed in the 10s. These close relations continued after the war, due in part, to the decision by Occupation authorities to use right wing activists (and their yakuza allies) to help secure Japan against possible left-wing uprisings.(Kaplan and Dubro,186, p.5.)

Today, various reports show ties still exist with certain politicians. It is assumed that these Yakuza members are often employed as fund-raisers, bodyguards and campaign workers. Like the police, some politicians simply regard the Japanese mob as performing a necessary service, an attitude that has allowed the yakuza to continue their operations "above- ground" and unfettered. (Kaplan and Dubro,186,p.116)

Relations between Japanese police and the yakuza are also complex. Some authorities have attributed the apparent hesitancy of Japanese police to crack down effectively on the yakuza because of their ability to function as an alternative police force. Japanese police are terrified by unorganized crime (Eisenstadt, p.108, 16).

Theres so little street crime because gangsters control the turf and they provide security. If some hoods come around the neighborhood and start making trouble, chances are the yakuza will reach them first. Japanese police prefer the existence of organized crime to its absence.

(Kaplan and Dubro, 186,p. 16.)

This is not to suggest that Japanese police completely look the other way when it comes to the mob. Over the years Japanese law enforcement officials, have staged numerous raids on various yakuza offices. However, these assaults have tended to be more a show of police muscle than a genuine attempt to shut down gangster operations.

It appears that the Yakuza perform a type of social service. One way of observing this is that the crime groups pen potentially disruptive societal elements and, through their emphasis on oyabun-kobun relations, help to discipline ruffians and minimise violent acts against ordinary people.

This oyabun- kobun relationship is resilient in many institutions in Japan and is a unique feature of the Yakuzas family structure. The hierarchical ties and relations between superior and subordinates in the Yakuza seem to be immersed to its utmost extent.

Oyabun-kobun, which literally means parent-child, is a term used to describe a dependent relationship between two people.In the Yakuza structure, the oyabun (Yakuza leader) provides protection and guidance to the kobun(Yakuza member), who reciprocates with loyalty and service.

This has maintained a level of discipline and order within Japanese crime groups that some Western law enforcement officials contend they never have seen in the U.S. or the European underworld. This level of loyalty can be represented in the custom of finger cutting; Yubitsume. This procedure originated from the Bakuto and signified a weakening of the hand (as the gambler could not hold his sword as firmly). It was performed as an act of apology to the oyabun for any misdeeds.

Has this hierarchical relationship between the Yakuza and societys misfits credited society? And furthermore, is this another factor which influences societys acceptance of the Yakuza? Well, some observers even credit the yakuza with helping to keep Japans crime rate one of the lowest in the world. Although other analysts believe that in Japan, much crime goes unreported, and ironically, it is the crimes of the Yakuza which go unnoticed, particularly in areas such as bribery and extortion (Kaplan and Dubro, 186, p. 18).

Up to this point, it seems that some Japanese people have accepted this heroic picture of the Yakuza. But others see a change in attitude toward the Yakuza, by the public beingincreasingly fed up with gang-related violence and apparent Yakuza collusion with big business and politicians.

And to further insist that most Japanese view the Yakuza as the 'unlikely heroes' of society, and that they give in to its 'Robin Hood' imagery would be false.

Most see the Yakuza's 'seedy activities' as the cause for many of Japans social problems. Like most growth-oriented enterprises, the yakuza have not confined their illegal and legal business activities.(Reischauer, 188, p.161). In the late 160s the Japanese mob took advantage of the sharp rise in Japanese tourism and began organizing sex tours" to various countries in Southeast Asia. The yakuza also began to recruit or, more probably, to coerce women from Southeast Asian countries to work as hostesses in mob-controlled brothels in Japans mizu shobai or water trade (Louis, 1, p.18). The overseas push proved similarly lucrative for drug trading, primarily in Korean and Taiwan.Gun trafficking also evolved into a profitable activity since the sale of guns is controlled so strictly in Japan.

So, rather than being a social champion, they are more or less viewed as a social disease. The origin of the term 'yakusa' itself derived from a meaning of 'usefulness'. It was then used by gamblers to denote a worthless outcome in a card game. 8-- or ya-ku-sa was the worst possible score (Kaplan & Dubro,p. 4, 186).

Perhaps it is because of the weak criminal system and its ties with almost every institution (leading to the corruption of that institution) in society, that the Japanese find themselves defenseless against the taint of the Yakuza.

Even the US forces in the post war attempted to dismiss the threat of the Yakuza, but soon saw that they were well organized and continued to operate under two oyabun and were supported by unidentified high-level goverment officials. They admitted defeat in 150, as they realized that they could not protect the Japanese people from the Yakuza. (Kaplan, p4-5)

In the post-war years, the Yakuza themselves went through change.They became more violent, both on the individual and collective scales.Their appearances also changed, taking American movie gangsters as their influence. They started wearing sunglasses, dark suits and ties with white shirts, and began to sport crewcuts. (Reischaur, 188, p161)

In fact, the traditional Yakuza themselves seem worried about the modern day Yakuza.In Louis' (1, p.184) interview with a retired Yakuza,it is revealed that the general thinkingof the older Yakuza members is that today's members have lost their sense of compassion or jingi (moral code).

In conclusion, whichever view one takes on how the Yakuza became such a silent yet important factor in Japanese society, the fact remains that they are here to stay.

The economic prowess of the Yakuza and its continual growth in members is an issue which needs to be conceived.

However, the anti-social activities of the Yakuza purpose bigger problems which first need to be addressed, particularly if the Nation wishes to advance for all members in society.One particular issue which comes to mind is that of gender. In a society where women seem to be advancing in most institutions, this is not the case within the Yakuza structure. The role of women is truly disadvantaged here with the only recognised woman, with any form of power being the Oyabun's wife.

As mentioned earlier, any issues concerning the Yakuza seem to be very concealed. There is little documentation made on the Yakuza in Japanese literature, let alone English literature. Though their semi-recognised existence is semi-legitimised through various arrangements with institutions. The Yakuza have become tightly interwoven into the overall network of Japanese society. Truly they are a force yet to be fully recognised and perhaps the first step lies daringly, in uncovering this blanketed entity.

Bibliography

1.David E Kaplan & Alec Dubro,Yakuza The Explosive Account of Japan's Criminal Underworld, 186, Addison-Wesley, USA.

.S. N. Eisenstadt, Japanese Civilization A Comparative View, 16, Chicago Press, London.

.Robert Harvey, The Undefeated , 14, Macmillan, London.

4.Lisa Louis, Butterflies Of The Night, 1, Tengu Books, New York

5.J. A Abecasis- Phillips Doing Business With The Japanese, 14, New York.

Edwin D Reischauer The Japanese Today, 188, Harvard, USA.

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Comparison of Epic of Gilgamesh to Old Testamanet

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The Flood Stories The Validity Debate Continues

In the Epic of Gilgamesh, it articulates how, For six days and six nights the winds blew, torrent and tempest and flood overwhelmed the world, tempest and flood raged together like warring hosts (Sandars 111). Alternatively, in the Old Testament, it says, All the fountains of the great deep [were] broken up, and the windows of heaven were opened . . . And the flood was forty days upon the earth; and the waters increased; . . . and the ark went upon the face of the waters.(Holy Bible, Genesis 711b, 17a, 18b). In addition, the story of the Flood in Metamorphoses elaborates on the fact that, Neptune called his river all, and told them, very briefly, to lose their violence, open their houses […] His trident struck the shuddering earth; it opened the way for the rush of waters (Humphries 11). Which flood story should readers confide in with validity? Better yet, which flood story is the refinement of the other? Many critics settle on the work of literature that best explains how, when and why the flood occurred.

Would it be justified to classify these poetic writings in terms of accurateness and irregularity?

The three works of written documentation in the Epic of Gilgamesh, The Old Testament, and Metamorphoses detail a flood story with resemblance and dissimilarity. Nevertheless, one work should not be judged by what it is lacking in information to the other works of literature. For example, it is quite clear that the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Book of Metamorphoses is a more elaborated diction of the Flood than in the Old Testament. All three books should not be distinguished as the originator and the secondary enhancement! One should take all three books as contrasting forms of linguistic translations that compliment the same flood story, with minor discrepancies. The disagreement lies not in diction, the state of confusion lies at the root of cultural diversity and historical background of all three works.

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Culturalism is defined by the shaped beliefs that are enculturated by the norms of society through political representation. The moldings of a culture involve race, sexual orientation, socio-economic status, language and spiritual inclination. The main differences in the translation of the Flood in all three books is due to the religious disproportions involved. The Epic of Gilgamesh, The Old Testament, and Metamorphoses differ in language, custom and traditions. For example, the divine nature of Gods in the Epic of Gilgamesh and Metamorphoses conflict with the monotheistic beliefs of the Hebrews, Middle Easterners and Romans.

The actual literature to this day is missing miniscule detailed evidence of the flood. However, the findings of the Assyrian Tablets (Babylonian writings) still is able to detail the Flood in its slightest entirety. The Flood analysis, as depicted in the Epic of Gilgamesh, originates from the Sumerian Dynastic Age. Five city states primarily functioned before the kingship were let down from the heavens to rule over mankind. Using the mythological settings of the Archaic Sumerian civilization, the Gods were the permanent replacements of mortals on the throne of the city states. Thus, the goal of mortals in the South Persian Gulf of Mesopotamia was to reach immortality. However, the God Enlils moral reasoning for the flood was that the uproar of mankind is intolerable and sleep is no longer possible by reason of the babel (Sandars 108). Therefore, the cultural background of the monotheistic Hebrews of the Old Testament and the Babylonian culture seem to agree on one front, that the wickedness of man had taken over earth. Consequently, mankind needed to be exterminated, due to the increased chaotic vibe of the times.

The symbolism of the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Old Testament share uniformity in the idea to build a boat. In the Epic of Gilgamesh, Ea warns, Reed-house […] O man of Shurrupak, son of Ubara-Tutu; tear down your house and build a boat, abandon possessions and look for life, despise worldly goods and save your soul alive. In the Old Testament, Noah is also asked by God to build a boat as well, in hopes of being blessed by God and being rewarded with earths flesh as meat for Noah and his family. This is illustrated in Genesis chapter nine, when God says to Noah, Be fruitful and increase in number and fill the earth. The fear and dread of you will fall upon all the beasts of the earth and all the birds of the air […] Everything that lives and moves will be food for you (Book Of Genesis1-4). The thought of rejuvenating ones life in a more positive direction, fleeing ones gratification from materialistic goals and filling ones mind with spiritual blessings is encouraged in both stories.

However, the difference of cultural motives in both stories clash to change the main purpose of the building of the boat and conclusion as well. The Babylonian cultures reward was the gift of immortality and rather self absorbed in comparison to the Hebrew cultures selfless reward of eternal life and blessings for all mankind. The monotheistic God in the Old Testament seemed to be more grateful then the Gods in the Epic of Gilgamesh. For example in the Old Testament, the Lord says, Never again will all life be cut off by the waters of a flood; never again will there be a flood to destroy the earth (Book of Genesis11). Conversely, Enlil behaves like a spoiled child who feels he or she is so special, that everything should go his or her way! Enlil notes Has any of these mortals escaped? Not one was to have survived the destruction (Sandars 11). The sweet-voiced Queen of Heaven complains, Alas the days of old are turned to dust because I commanded evil; why did I command this evil […] I commanded wars to destroy the people, but are they not my people, for I brought them forth? Now like the spawn of fish they float by the ocean (Sandars 110). How can this unappreciative Queen of heaven, dare to weep about the destruction of mankind, when she was the instigator of the whole mess in the first place! The divine Gods seem like timid ingrates that yield satisfaction for inspiration. In order to analyze the humble and understanding God in the Old Testament, in sharp contrast to the Divine Gods of Gilgamesh, one must first seek the historical inspiration of both Gods.

Lets compare the mythology of the divine Gods to the ritual and religion of the monotheistic God. The locality of the flood events in the Epic of Gilgamesh was set around Mesopotamia. The Western psycho-analysis framework may have influenced the story of the Flood in Gilgamesh, since westernization influences rather wide ranging terms such as art, literature, drama, psychology, medicine, astronomy and astrology, and film, among others (New American Standard Bible. Nashville, TN Broadman 10). One aspect of spiritualism that Mesopotamian and the Babylonian culture were denied of, was a stable covenant with the divinity of Gods. The lack of grace, peace and faith in a promised plan, perhaps lead to insecurity and inner struggles within thyself. Thus, the lack of gratitude and humility of the Gods in the Epic of Gilgamesh compliments their lack of a concrete belief. However, the Hebrew culture stresses gratitude, fear and humility, since God has already promised his people a futuristic plan to be established in due time. The Book of Revelations promotes this when it states, Grace and peace to you from him who is, and who was, and who is to come…. Thus meaning, Jesus Christ is to come to save his people from their sinful nature and into the heavens, were their fruitful blessings will be offered to them.(Revelations 1)

Where did man originate? When was the time and existence of the flood? Who or what was the artist that drew the world then and now? The divine myths of Ovids work of literature, Metamorphoses is similar to the Epic of Gilgamesh, in that both works implement the structuring of space equals emphasis. Both works represent beautiful poems that explain the questions of the flood in elaborated detail. Many would criticize the Old Testaments explaining of the flood for being to simplistic, systematic and organized. In spite of this, let us not cease to forget that the account of the flood in the Old Testamant was written probably around 1500 B.C. While Ovids, Metamorphoses was written somewhere between 8 and 17 A.D. The Old Testament is written plainly, since the monotheistic God of the Hebrews had already formed a rock solid covenant with his descendants as of today. While the Book of Metamorphoses struggles to find some form of validity in persuading the reader that the divine Gods had something to do with the flood. The Bible states that it takes the Hebrew God six days to complete his creation while there is no specific time frame for creation in Ovids writing of the flood. The Old Testaments description of the completion of creation takes thirty-one verses of Hebrew monotheism, while the Book of Metamorphoses intricately details the creation story in seven stanzas, a poetic compilation of eighty lines (The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces. Ed. Maynard Mack. New York Norton 187, pg 54-560.).

The inaptness in intricate detailing is evident in both the Old Testament and the Book of Metamorphoses. The Norton Anthology illustrates this in Ovids, holds up, holds in the land, while, in Genesis, the land {separates} the waters from the waters (54; 1). Ironically, Ovids Metamorphoses seems to rush the creation of the world by stating that the air,land, light and water form at one instance, when God, or kindlier Nature, [settles all](The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces. Ed. Maynard Mack. New York Norton 187, pg 54-560.). Take note that the Book of Genesis states, In the beginning God {creates} the heavens and the earth. Light, vegetation, land, stars, moon, fish, animals and man are created on separate days.

However, there are also similarities between both stories that help continue to withstand the test of time. In both accounts, each describe a shapelessness and the earth being formless and void ((The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces. Ed. Maynard Mack. New York Norton 187, pg 54-560, Book of Genesis 1). In addition there is no sun to light the universe, (Ovid 54) so darkness over the surface of the deep {Genesis 1).However, the more opinionated version of the Book of Metamorphoses carries no detail on the time frame of the flood in its entirety. In the Book of Genesis, it rains for forty days and forty nights (71). The more concrete version of the flood in the Old Testament is illustrated in the way the prevailing rain is described. In the Book of Genesis, it states, the water {prevails} upon the earth for one hundred and fifty days (74).

Although the Book of Genesis efficiently details the periodic time frame for the creation and the flood, the difference of descriptiveness from the Old Testament andMetamorphoses becomes evident. The Book of Genesis notes The waters rose and increased greatly on the earth […] Every living thing that moved on earth perished-birds, livestock, wild animals, all the creatures that swarm over the earth, and all mankind […] Every living thing on the face of the earth was wiped out; men and animals and the creatures that move along the ground and the birds of the air were wiped from the earth. Only Noah was left, and those with him in the ark (718-). In contrast, Humphries translation of Ovids Metamorphose notes The leaping rivers flood over the great plains. Not only orchards are swept away, not only grain and cattle […] Some poor fellow seizes a hill-top […] Someone catches Fish in the top of an elm tree, or an anchor drags in green meadow-land […] the dolphins invade the woods and brushes against the oak trees….etc It is obvious that Metamorphoses openly forces the reader to imagine and visualize the Flood story. The use of active prose and sensory linguistics in Metamorphoses shows the persuasive and intricate detailing of Metamorphoses. The more established, time -detailed and stable analysis of the Book of Genesis differentiates from the showy display of the Book of Metamorphoses, that goes out of reach to achieve the confidence of its readers.

The conclusive detailing of the Old Testament and the Book of Metamorphoses are similar in wide contrast to the Epic of Gilgamesh. The divine gods in the Gilgamesh seem rattled by the destruction of the flood. Thus, they concluded the flood scenes with bitter and revengeful hearts. However, in the Book of Metamorphoses, Deucalion and Pyrrha, the two survivors, throw stones that seem to remake mankind in a new world order. The stones of Deucalion, reborn man and the stones Pyrrha ( Deucalions wife, cousin, partner) throws, rekindle the making of women. In chapter nine, verse one to seven in the Book of Genesis, it describes how the earth is populated by Noah, his wife, Shem, Ham, and Japeth in retrospect to the flood. The Norton Anthology of Ovids Metamorphoses describes how the animals of the earth form, evolutionize, from water and heat amongst the mud (55) .In the Book of Genesis, chapter eight verse seventeen, the earth begins to repopulate themselves. Hence, in wide contrast to the Epic of Gilgamesh, one family is chosen to continue the existence of the human race. The monotheistic God of the Hebrews chooses Noah and his family, while the deities of Metamorphoses chooses Deucalion and Pyrrha. Although there are differences in the way the conclusive details of the flood are told, both the Book of Metamorphoses and the Old Testament emphasize how disobedience from God or gods sent forth a flood to destroy mankind. Thus, both accounts describe the actualization of the society to worship and show reverence to the God, or deity gods in ultimate control.

All three works that describe the flood share similarities and differences in detailing the events that take place. They differentiate on the varied messages they place emphasis on. The main distinction have to do with spiritual diversity between distinct cultures. It is because of these variations in writing and technique, that each of these poems have acquired and maintained the respect they truly deserve through years of evaluation and criticism. Lets take each account for what its worth and not what it lacks!

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Hamlet

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Movie Review

Shakespeare's Hamlet is a drama which derives from a legendary story of 1th century. Hamlet is a Danish prince who seeks revenge for his father's death. Hamlet is a play of questions reflecting the issues of love, revenge, friendship and trust. Hamlet delivers unpredictable story which is fairly common in many of Shakespeare's plays.

After reading and viewing different adaptations of Hamlet we can deduce the different interpretations of the play. Every adaptation is different and unique from the other adaptations. After reading Hamlet, edited by A.R. Braunmuller and viewing two adoptions directed by Richardson (16) and Almereyda (000), the most challenging character to analyze seems to be Hamlet himself.

It is always interesting to watch a film adaptation of something that you previously read and you just visualized in your head. As every writer pictures his character differently while writing, every actor performs differently according this his qualities. The same it appears to be with Hamlet. As Shakespeare did not leave any directions how Hamlet should be dressed or acted, it gives a free hand to directors and actors to perform and interpret the play at their will. Upon seeing the two adaptations you can notice the gradual decrease of dramatization in Almereyda's Hamlet, particularly looking at characters. Richardson Hamlet (Nicol Williamson) is more mature and corresponds better with Braunmuller's Hamlet who is 0 years old 16th century upper-class man who is more melancholic. On the other hand Almereyda's Hamlet (Ethan Hawke) is young around -5 years old uptown college student living in New York who seemed to lose all the nobility of Braunmuller's or Richardson's Hamlet.

The age difference plays a major role in credibility of the character as well as the quality of acting which is in example of Almereyda's Hamlet quite disappointing comparing to Richardson's Hamlet.

In the Act 1, Scenewe can see that Almereyda's Hamlet is more loner than melancholic. The first good contact with Hamlet gets audience at the beginning of the movie where Hamlet returns home from college and goes to his father's funeral and his mother's wedding. Hamlet is portraying an image of young cool, modern independent man equipped with numerous modern gadgets which accompany him throughout the whole movie. You can find this image disturbing rather than supporting the Hamlet's character. Hamlet in this case lost the nobility with which he was predisposed from Shakespeare's original version. In Richardson's Hamlet we get quite different feeling where the character of Hamlet seems to be more settled and solid which leaves us with very united feelings about Hamlet. The film set in this case is darker and does not employ establishing shots. The video technique is simpler, using primarily close-ups and medium shots which allow us to concentrate better on the text than on the visuals. Also the acting is persuasive and helps us to feel the graduate dramatization of the story.

Almereyda's Hamlet left out his first two lines where Hamlet talks to king

"Little more than kin, and less than kind!"

Hamlet's sarcasm establishes the attitude towards the King Claudius, his uncle. In contrast when Hamlet at the end of the Actis left alone on the stage and contemplates his father's death and his mother's wedding in Almereyda's version he is watching his recordings on the TV which helps the current scene to develop visually and makes it more melancholic. In Richardson version Hamlet is left alone on the stage walking around and quoting the lines

"O that this too too sullied flesh would melt …"

Even though Richardson's Hamlet seems to be more "simple", his facial expressions help the viewer imagine what he feels at that particular moment.

One of the interesting modernizations of Hamlet in Almereyda's movie is repositioning of the Scene 1 Act 1 where Horatio, Marcelus and Bernardo see the ghost. This big change might at first seem to be confusing but as the movie progresses you find this scene as series of flashbacks while Hamlet meets Horatio, Marcelus and Bernardo who tell him about ghost (Scene ). This becomes very nicely incorporated in the context and gives you a feel of watching one of the recent movies.

Richardson's Hamlet is more conservative and follows the original play script, which again lays importance on acting.

One of the main differences you might encounter while watching different adaptations of Hamlet is the Scene 4 and that is the encounter of Hamlet and Ghost. In Richardson's Hamlet this is done quite dramatically where Hamlet accompanied by Horatio, Bernardo and Marcelus go to show Hamlet the ghost. Hamlet opposes Horatio about the idea of following the ghost

"It will not speak. Then I will follow it."

As the scene's tension graduates Hamlet makes an attempt with sword to push away Horatio, saying

"Hold off your hands"

This scene in Almereyda's Hamlet is left out and the movie progresses quite peacefully without any disturbance. Hamlet is in his apartment sleeping when all sudden he is woken up by a ringing phone and as he gets up he sees his father's ghost standing on the balcony. While watching this scene you do not get the horrifying impression of this encounter because the ghost is very human-like. Richardson decided that this scene will take place in the catacombs where Hamlet follows the bright light of the ghost. And we get the feeling that this ghost is something unnatural and extraterrestrial.

Almereyda's Hamlet acting is again questionable, where he appears to have the same expression throughout the whole scene. In both Braunmuller's Hamlet, Almereyda's Hamlet it is mentioned that Hamlet has doubts about the ghost (Act , Scene )

"… Observe my uncle. If his occulted guilt

Do not itself unkennel in one speech,

It is a damned ghost we have seen …"

Almereyda's Hamlet first hugs the ghost and appears to fully trust him, but then he questions the ghost's credibility. This shift from the original script can create a level of controversy and confusion for the viewer.

On the other hand in Richardson's Hamlet you do not see this kind of personalization of between ghost and Hamlet. Ghost is portrayed as a bright light in Hamlet's face and the viewer is left only with the ghost's voice. Richardson's Hamlet acting seemed more appropriate than Almereyda's Hamlet.

What is most important about this scene that in Richardson's Hamlet we see the development of Hamlet's madness after the ghost's speech when hamlet leans on the wall and with his knife he writes on the wall

"So, uncle, there you are. Now to my word

It is 'Audieu, audieu, remember me.'

I have sworn't."

Hamlet is saying these lines while writing and stabbing the wall as a symbol of his revenge and uncle's death. This part is left out in Almereyda's Hamlet and does not even give a hint about Hamlet's madness

Hamlet's most famous soliloquy

"To be or not to bethat is the question;" (Act , Scene 1)

In Richardson's Hamlet it is delivered in bed. Hamlet is laying down contemplating his death while citing famous lines. Richardson did not use any background music to emphasize the current Hamlet's emotions, which works very good and it allows us to focus on Hamlet's speech. Bed in this case symbolizes a grave where he will or will not want to see himself. Cuts are primarily slow with main focus on Hamlet's face which gives it a nice flow.

In Almereyda's Hamlet the situation is quite different. Establishing shot of a tall building colored in red and covered in dawn sets the mood for something mysterious and miserable. Then it switches to shot of Hamlet in Blockbuster video store, where Hamlet walks between the aisles while images from "The Crow" are flashing on the TV in the back. This quite unusual setup gives a feeling of a cemetery or could be seen as a metaphor for coffins, which gives the viewer the option of free interpretation.

Remarkable difference viewer can encounter is in ActScene 5 where Hamlet violently comes to his mother's room. Hamlet is rude to her and mentions her incestuous marriage to Claudius and tells her that she offended his father and kills hiding Polonius

"Mother you have my father much offended."

In Almereyda's version Hamlet is violent and better shows the drama of this particular scene by using lot of gestures which gives us an idea that Hamlet is mad and looks down at his mother for what she did. As a latest adaption of Hamlet in this version Polonius is killed by gun does not really differ from Richardson's version except the scene setup. The major difference is the way Polonius was killed. Richardson's Hamlet stabbed in stomach and in Almereyda's Hamlet shot in the head. Almereyda's Hamlet is more bloody and violent which helps to graduate the dramatization of this particular scene.

Richardson Hamlet on the other hand is more emotional and melancholic. He shows his emotions through the tears while crying in the arms of his mother. This sudden changes in Hamlet's behavior reflect his madness and makes it easier for the viewer to see.

Another great scene from Hamlet is Act 5 Scene 1 where two gravediggers (clowns) are digging out Ophelia's grave and discussing the fact that Ophelia's drowned herself and therefore should not receive a Christina burial.

This scene is left out in Almereyda's Hamlet which does not have any significant impact on the story. Richardson's Hamlet on the other hand employs only one gravedigger so the discussion is left out again. Hamlet accompanied by Horatio approach gravedigger with a line

"Whose grave's this, sirrah?"

The scene is set up at night in a foggy environment which adds to the morbidity dusk of the cemetery.One of the most interesting shots in the whole play is profile shot of Hamlet holding the skull in one hand and talking to it. Black background and deep focus add to the gravity of the scene.

On the hand this whole part is left out in Almereyda's Hamlet and it begins with Hamlet and Horatio arrive at the cemetery while the funeral is already in process. The coffin with Ophelia's body in it is already put in the grave while Leartes is standing by her grave. This scene is set during the day, which lightens the mood of the scene. A deep profound music in the background helps the scene to develop more dramatic slope.

A moment in Almereyda version is very surprising, when Hamlet sees Leartes kneeling in the grave he walks up to him a gives him a hand. But what becomes even more striking is the fact, which after Leartes gets out of the grave he simply walks away seemingly ignoring the fact that the murder of his father and reason of Ophelia's death is standing right in front of him. While walking away Hamlet seems to be more assertive this time and verbally attacks Leartes with his passage

"I loved Ophelia. Forty thousand brothers

Could not with all their quantities of love

Make up my sum. What wilt thou do for her?"

"'Swounds, show me what thou't do.

Woo't weep? Woo't fight? Woo't fast? Woo't tear thyself?

Woo't drink up easel? Eat a crocodile?

I'll do't. Dost come here to whine?"

Only after this, Leartes cannot resist anymore and pushes Hamlet down the hill which supplements for the fight, which in Braunmuller's and Richardson's Hamlet occurred in the grave. Although this was not a major shift from the original script it still had an affect on both characters. The switch of these two events had an impact on Leartes character where he no longer had the picture of strong solid man who is willing to do anything in a name of justice and to revenge his father's and sister's death. He became a coward who broke down and is not able to take an immediate action against his enemy anymore.

In Richardson's Hamlet the situation is different. Upon arriving on the scene Hamlet jumps in the grave together with Leartes. Hamlet is the first one who starts the fight. Shortly after they are separated after King's request

"Pluck them asunder."

In this case it made Hamlet and Leartes look, that they fight for what they truly believe in. They did not lack impulsiveness in their actions, which on the other hand made it even more interesting to watch.

Final scene of Act 5 Scenein Almereyda's Hamlet was done fairly good. This part takes place on the top of a tall building which sets a nice scenario for the match to happen. Here it begins with a fencing match .You can hear a repetitive tune in the background which suits this moment accordingly creating a pleasant scene setup. After second hit, King approaches Hamlet with a glass of wine when suddenly Gertrude gets in his way to wipe Hamlet's face with a napkin. She suspects the poison in the glass and drinks it to save Hamlet. This doesn't last too long before Leartes pulls a gun on Hamlet a shoots him. After a short fight another shot is fired and Leartes is dying. There are only few comments that one could make about the color of the blood which is more orange then red which affects the credibility of the situation. Another thing is a moment when Hamlet shoots King several times while the King has no bullet marks on this suit which makes one question" From where is King bleeding?"

In Richardson's version Hamlet is little comedian during the fencing match which makes it appear more as a match then a fight for life. The situation does not seem to be too dense. In this version the queen does not suspect the poison in the wine which makes her look littler more naïve then in Almereyda's Hamlet. Everybody around is having good time and except king and Leartes nobody suspects anything. An odd moment comes when queen is poisoned and the ladies who are right next to her hold her while laughing and smiling which you might find very strange and inappropriate. Hamlet after being him stabs the King and forces him to drink the poisoned drink. King falls on the table dead. This final fight between Hamlet and King leaves the viewer persuaded that Hamlet was really willing to fight for his father's death and ends with a shot of dead Hamlet laying on the floor, while the pictures fades out.

Both adaptation of Hamlet had stronger and weaker points which were analyzed throughout different scenes and instances. There are always going to be differences in adaptations because that is what makes the Shakespeare's play Hamlet so unique. No specific directions and instructions how to perform this play, restrict the imagination of a director who decides for such a secret theme as Hamlet to come alive in a film. Hamlet we you can see can be acting and explained in numerous ways for which the actor can decide. It is an open character which allows for modification and development of the beauty of the character. Nonetheless both movies can be very strongly suggested for viewing because both of them have a story to tell.

Please note that this sample paper on Hamlet is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Hamlet, we are here to assist you.Your cheap custom college paper on Hamlet will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Leadership is the most important factor to ensure an effective and efficent organization

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The paradoxical issue of leadership has been such long subject of speculation and much has been focused on the determinants s of leadership effectiveness. Much of the leadership has been centered on the different concept of leadership, different ways of evaluating its effectiveness, and different approaches for studying leadership and how it forges and affects the effectiveness and the efficiency of a particular organization.

According to The Webster Dictionary, a leader is defined as a person who by force of example, talents or qualities of leadership plays a directing role, wields commanding influence, or has a following in any sphere of activity or thought. It defines leadership as that ingredient of personality that causes people to follow. Leadership is also conveniently defined as the ability to get things done through others, the process by which a leader exerts influence over others to move towards a vision. Leadership is distinguished from management, in that leadership implies a vision, or some sense of a higher and purpose beyond the day to day task of managing the work production of an organization or agency.

According to Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary (000), efficiency is defined as "the quality of doing well with no waste of time or money" meanwhile effective is defined as "producing the intended result or a successful result". As such, Leadership is an act of securing, attaining results for the organization and with the optimum utilization of its resources. This entails very imperative and a high quality of traits or characteristics that leaders should possess that contribute to the effectiveness and efficiency of the particular organization.

Leadership can also be defined as the process of influencing people to direct their efforts toward the attainment of some particular goal or goals (Hodgetts and Kuratko, 186).

Invariably in a similar note, Leadership is defined as process used by the individual to influence group of members toward the achievement of group goals, where the group members view the influence as legitimate (Howell, and Costley, 001).

According to Howell and Costley, careful studies in organizations show that executive leadership can account for 45 percent of an organization's performance. Leadership also tends to make a difference in follower's satisfaction and performance and persevere the effectiveness and the efficiency of the organization.

The core characteristics of the definition of the above stated leadership are, firstly, leadership is a process or a reasonable systematic and continuous series of actions directed toward group goals. As such, leadership today should be referred as the pattern of behaviors that leaders exhibit rather than the individual or the properties or traits or qualities of the individuals. Secondly, leadership is the designed act to influence people to influence people to modify their behavior. Thirdly, leadership is characterized as a single individual who usually fulfills the role for a group. Fourthly, leadership influence is viewed by followers as reasonable and justified. Fifthly, leadership influence is directed towards achieving group goals.

Current leadership experts agree that effective leadership behavior depends on situational and follower characteristics. To be effective leaders means to be able to diagnose the situation and followers characteristics and this will determine the pattern of leadership behavior that will result in high performance. This suggests that leader's behavior differ from leadership traits or skills. Nevertheless, behavior and traits or skills interact to determine a leader's effectiveness.

Certain situational or followers characteristics can increase or decrease the effectiveness of a leader's behavior. Nevertheless, leaders have important roles to play in organizations, and effective leaders need to be aware of three tasks the effective leadership process diagnosing situations to determine the need for a specific leader behavior, providing the needed leader behavior and modify situations and/or follower to increase their ability to work effectively and/or independently of the leader in attaining high performance and positive attitudes.

According to Robert T. Justis, the level of leadership effectiveness is influenced strongly by the perceived task competency of the leader, by the reward dependency of the subordinate upon the leader, and by the interaction of these two variables.

Leadership in a traditional view of organization would entail strong directive and task skills, and a clear idea of the objective, usually formed by the individual independent of input from others. Leadership is deemed as a function of position, a power possessed only by the person at the top. The new context of organizations as a more complex and comprehensive call for a new paradigm in leadership. This is due to the fact that organizations and systems are now seen as interdependent, complex and diverse. The environment that the organization has to endure consists of complex network of customers, suppliers, and interlocking markets and subject to sudden, unpredictable change.

As such, a new model of leadership is needed to sustain and persevere to these new organization conditions and it entails new sets of behaviors and skills. Leaders need to have interpersonal attitude, the ability to authentically articulate core principles and a sense of meaning for oneself and for others, and the skill to tap the deep resources of creativity and passion of team members. According to Bolman & Deal (11), this is defined as the symbolic frame of leadership who can release the deep intrinsic motivation in staff and customers to increase loyalty, passion, and creativity that cannot be tapped by other means. Invariably, the political frame of effective leadership posits leaders as astute politician that employ power constructively, and offer a review of the literature on how this might be approached.

According to Steven Covey (10), attainment ofan effective and efficient organization is warrantedby leaders having built a high-trust culture where people are empowered to strive for their best, and seeking to align "strategy, style, structure and systems" with the professed mission and with the realities of the environment.

Leadership is inevitably the essence of the effectiveness and efficiency of an organization. As stated above leaders need to influence followers and he or she must use behavioral patterns in an effective manner. Failing which, followers are not influenced to achieve group goals. Types of situational and follower characteristics that leaders must consider in selecting the appropriate behavior should be identified. There are five core leader behavior patterns that should be adhered by leaders.

Firstly, the supportive behavior which entails the leader's role in showing concern for comfort and well being of followers; demonstrating considerate, kind, and understanding attitude in dealing with followers; being friendly and informative, and encouraging open two-way communication and follower development.

Secondly, directive leadership behavior refers to the leader's behavior in assigning followers to specific tasks, explaining the methods to be used in completing the tasks, clarifying expectations regarding quantity and quality of follower performance, setting goals for followers, planning and coordinating followers, and specifying roles and procedures to be followed.

Thirdly, the participating leadership involves followers in decision-making by consulting and getting ideas from followers. Followers are given opportunity in disseminating and constructing their own decisions with initial effort by the leaders or assigning a particular problem to a follower to resolve.

Fourthly, leader reward and punishment behavior entails the leader to provide intrinsic and extrinsic benefits and usually and in best practices is based on the follower's performance. Punishment is rendered for unwanted followers behaviors.

Fifthly, the charismatic leadership behavior involves the leader communicating a vision of the future that has ideological significance to the followers, arousing follower's needs which are relevant to goal accomplishment, serving as a role model, expressing high expectations and confidence in follower's capabilities, and projecting a high esteem degree of confidence.

The leadership behavioral patterns which are exhibited are not mutually exclusive although they are described as distinct from one another. Nevertheless, different behavioral patterns may serve different leadership patterns. There are other emerging leader behavior include the leaders role in boundary spanning, which is representing the group, protecting members from outsiders, obtaining resources, and resolving conflicts among members and with other groups. Leaders use behavioral patterns to influence followers to accomplish group or organization's goals. It is imperative for leaders to use a variety of behaviors to obtain desired outcomes with followers. Using of different combination of behaviors are called leadership styles. Most effective leaders demonstrate all of these behavioral patterns at one time or another based on the situation.

Leaders behavior have a constructive and influencing bearing on the psychological reactions(attitudes, feelings,perceptions,motivations and expectations) on the followers which in turn has an impact on the followers satisfaction with supervision, general job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job stress, role clarity, motivation and group cohesion. As such, positive effects ensure a pleasant working environment and facilitate attainment of organization goals. Meanwhile, negative effects reduce satisfaction and may result in resentment and uncooperative followers. This will result in the organization being ineffective and inefficient. The leadership behavior patterns have bearings on the organizational outcomes. Importance outcomes include high individual and group performance; low turnover, absenteeism, lateness, and grievance rates; and high quality levels, all of which result in a production organization. This suggest that a supportive leader tends to increase followers satisfaction (a psychological reaction) and a high level of job satisfaction among workers and naturally result in lower turnover, absenteeism, and grievance rates which may impose high production costs.

Even though the deliberations so far has centered or viewed as shared influence process based on a behavioral approach, it is appreciated that leadership should also be viewed as a specialized role which focuses on the attributes that determine selection of designated leaders. Traits and skills coupled with leadership behavior emanate an effective leadership and justify effective and efficient organization. It helps to say that positive trait and skills gives and added advantage to the leadership effectiveness.

Firstly, leaders should have a visionary mind or has the ability to give clear direction. Leaders are always engaged in the implementation of a change in complex systems and agencies. It is a critical element in this effort and the imitative to succeed and leaders will be needed to articulate a vision and motivate the aligned energy of groups of people, negotiate resources, resolves conflicts, keep the change process moving in the desired direction, and stimulate appropriate adjustment to ever-changing conditions. Leaders are attentive to visions by paying attention, synthesizing vision into a choice of direction and focusing attention by developing commitment. Leaders should be able to scan the horizon, identify future trends, and position the agency or system to meet future needs and basically inspire a shared vision.

Secondly, leadership entails the need of an interpersonal aptitude of the leader, the ability to authentically articulate core principles and a sense of meaning for oneself and for others, and the skill to tap the deep resources of creativity and passion of team members. Leadership is the willingness to coach and support people and have the tendency to reward a diversify set of skills, creatively aligned towards one outcome.

Thirdly, knowledge-sharing leadership involves the need for leaders to possess knowledge of the subject they are involved and should be sufficient to command the respect of his followers. In absence, the leadership's credibility is disputed and questioned. This will tend to construct an ineffectiveness and inefficiencies in the organization. Employees tend to be disoriented and lack the confidence in executing their work.

Fourthly, leadership needs the capacity and the tenacity to communicate with their followers especially in conveying their thoughts in a clear and concise manner. Leadership involves the competency to influence people to do what they want them to do. This is imperative so that goals and objectives of organizations are attained. It ensures the effectiveness of the organization to realize its goals.

In conclusion, evaluation of leadership effectiveness is coined in terms of the consequences of the leader's actions for followers and other organizational stakeholders. The different outcomes dictate the extent of organizational effectiveness and efficiency that the organization is nurtured, molded and strategised to enable the attainment of the organizational goals and objectives. Outcomes could be in the form of the performance and growth of the leader's group or organization, its preparedness to deal with challenges or crises, follower satisfaction with the leader, follower commitment to the group objectives, the psychological well being and development of the followers. Nevertheless, the most important should be the attainment of the organizational goals and performance effectively and efficiently. This is measured in terms of profits, profit margin, sales increase, market share, sales relative to targeted sales, return on investment, productivity, cost per unit of output and cost in relative to budget expenditures. Leadership must condone to a continuous effort to enhance group cohesiveness by improving the quality of work life, build the self-confidence of followers, increasing their skills, and contribute to the psychological development growth and development. This will eventually ensure the effectiveness and efficiency of the organization when goals and performance of the organization is attained.

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Tobacco

Tobacco is a plant grown for its leaves that are smoked, chewed, or sniffed for a variety of effects. It is considered an addictive substance because it contains the chemical nicotine. The tobacco plant is believed to have originated in the Western Hemisphere. The cultivated species most often grown for North

American and European tobacco products is Nicotine Tabacum. The leaves of the plant are prepared for smoking, chewing, or sniffing. In addition nicotine tobacco contains over 45 carcinogens and more than 4,000 chemicals. Prior to

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European influence in the Americas, the Indians of Mexico and Peru used tobacco for the ceremonies, medical purposes and to alleviate hunger pains during famines. Columbus is credited with introducing tobacco into Europe. Tobacco use became widely accepted by the Portuguese, Spanish, French, British, and

Scandinavians. Explorers and sailors who became dependent upon tobacco began planting seeds at their ports of call, introducing the product into other parts of Europe and Asia. The colonist introduced tobacco on the American continent in the early 1600s. It became a major crop and trading commodity of the Jamestown

Colony. Over the years tobacco has been claimed as a cure for a wide range of ailments with varying forms of administration. Its social importance also grew over the years, even the point of denoting the modern women during the 1st part of the twentieth century. It was not until the 160s, with the introduction of medical research related to cigarette smoking that the adverse health effects of the tobacco became widely publicized. Unfortunately, most of the health hazards were only associated with cigarette smoking. While the number of cigarette smokers in the United States has continually decreased over recent years the number of smokeless tobacco users has steadily increased. Since the

170s a 15-fold increase in smokeless tobacco has been noted in adolescents 17 to 1 years old. This has most likely been related to the emphasis on smoke free environments, availability, increased advertising of smokeless products, and the false belief that smokeless tobacco is a safe alternative for those convinced they should stop smoking but who still want the nicotine effects of tobacco.

Although over 40 million people in the United States have quit smoking, about 50 million continue to smoke (about 5% of the population). Each year, approximately 1. million Americans quit smoking. In addition about two thirds of current smokers report they have never tried to quit. About 0 to 40% of those who have not tried to quit say they do not believe that the health risks of smoking will ultimately decrease their risks for disease. Young men are at highest risk for using tobacco products but the incidence in women is increasing. Smokeless tobacco use patterns are higher within the following occupations; athletes, ranchers, farmers, fishermen, lumberjacks, and industrial workers, who have jobs requiring hand freedom. Nicotine has both stimulant and depressant effects upon the body. Bowel tone and activity increases along with saliva and bronchial secretions. Stimulation is followed with a phase that depresses the respiratory muscles. As an euphoric agent, nicotine causes arousal as well as relaxation from stressful situations. On the average, tobacco use increases the heart rate 10 to 0 beats per minute and it increases the blood pressure reading by 5 to 10 millimeters of mercury (because it constricts the blood vessels). Nicotine may also increase sweating, nausea and diarrhea because of its effects on the central nervous system. Nicotines effect upon hormonal activities is also present. It elevates the blood level of glucose and increases insulin production. Nicotine also tends to enhance platelet aggregation, which may lead to blood clotting. The positive effects of nicotine upon the body should also be noted. It stimulates memory and alertness, enhancing cognitive skills that requires speed, reaction time and work performance. As a mood-altering agent, it tends to alleviate boredom, reduces stress, and reduces aggressive responses to stressful events. It also tends to be an appetite suppressant specifically decreasing the appetite for simple carbohydrates and disturbs the efficiency with which food is metabolized. People who use tobacco products frequently depend upon it to provide these side effects to help them accomplish certain tasks at specific levels. With all the information that is out today why do people continue to smoke? Since 164, the Surgeon General has warned that smoking is a health hazard this announcement promoted the U.S.

Public Health Service and The American Cancer Society to publicize the dangers of tobacco smoking, and offer suggestions to those trying to quit. Cigarette packages were required to carry the warningmay be hazardous to health. Later the wording was strengthened to readSmoking is

Dangerous to Your Health. The reason cigarette smokers do not give up this harmful habit easily is simple; Nicotine is a highly addictive substance like many other drugs. Smokers are hooked as surely as is any heroin or cocaine addict; giving up cigarettes creates painful withdrawal symptoms and a craving that many people cannot overcome. The Public Health Service has declared cigarettes and tobacco to be our most common form of drug dependency.

Researchers discovered that nicotine is carried to the brain via the bloodstream within a minute or two of smoking; its then eliminated about a half-hour later, and then the craving returns. Scientists and farmers have long known that nicotine is a deadly poison. They use a concentrated spray of the chemical, extracted from tobacco leaves as a potent insecticide. In humans, nicotine constricts the blood vessels, decreasing blood circulation to the skin and vital organs. Long term smokers tend to look much older than non-smokers- a result of the contraction of the capillaries on the skins surface, which prevents absorption of tissue building nutrients. Furthermore, smokers afflicted with arterial hardening and cholesterol deposits suffer a significantly higher number of heart attacks than non-smokers. The damaged blood vessels give way sooner, when shriveled by nicotine. Until the early 100s tobacco was usually chewed, inhaled as snuff, or smoked in cigars and pipes without being inhaled. In other words, nicotine was being absorbed into the bloodstream through the membranes of the mouth, nose, and bronchial passages, not through the lungs. The invention of cigarette paper and automatic rolling machinery changed all that, and soon tobacco users were puffing away on white wrapped sticks of tobacco. This introduced new toxins deep into the body, known collectively as tar.

These toxins are byproducts of the combustion of paper, tobacco, and chemicals in tobacco processing. The most lethal byproduct inhaled from burning tobacco is benzopyrene; a carcinogenic chemical also emitted by automobile exhaust pipes and factory smokestacks. In numerous tests, benzopyrene has been applied to the respiratory tracts of laboratory animals, and has usually resulted in malignant tumors. The leading killer among all forms of cancers, lung cancer currently claims about 140,000 victims annually. The American Cancer Society estimates that 87% of lung cancer deaths could be avoided if only people would stop smoking. Lung cancer isnt the only concern. The chemical irritants absorbed into the blood are excreted almost unchanged in the urine, and they can lead to the development of cancer of the kidneys, prostate glands, and bladder. The last

10 years have seen a shift inner awareness of the dangers of smoking. While we have known for three decades that smoking is a leading cause of cancer death, we have finally acknowledged that second hand smoke can cause the same problems as firsthand smoke. In early 1, in fact, the EPA classified second hand smoke a

Class A carcinogen. That label means Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS) is every bit as potent as arsenic, asbestos, and radon in its ability to cause cancer. In

188, following years of study, the Surgeon General stated that sidetream smoke could be deadly for non-smokers. In addition to causing respiratory problems,

ETS is responsible for ,000 to 5,000 lung cancer deaths a year in non-smokers, as well as 5,000 to 40,000 deaths from heart disease. It is easy to see why tobacco smoke is so deadly. It contains more than 4,000 chemicals and at least

45 of its ingredients are known or suspected to be cancer causing. But what is truly alarming is that secondhand smoke contains greater concentrations of certain carcinogens than primary smoke. It also contains greater amounts of nicotine and tar, both strong and addictive toxins. The first interview I had conducted was with my grandmother who happily admits she has never been a smoker or tobacco user. Even though she has never used tobacco, she has firsthand experiences of what tobacco can do to a person and their family. The first story she told me was about how her husband and my grandfather, needed to have triple by-pass surgery. The surgery was performed in the spring of 11 and was successful; my grandfather still lives today. The doctor had told him that his smoking over the last 40 years was one of the biggest factors that made him need the surgery. My grandfather has since quit, but will be on medication for the rest of his life. The second story my grandmother had told me did not have such a happy ending. Her sister was only 5 years old when she was diagnosed with emphysema. The contributing factors were obvious, it was tobacco use. She sat and told me the stories of how she would sit by her sisters side feeling helpless because they were told that nothing could be done. My grandmother said of how her sister wished she knew the dangers of smoking when she was younger; because by the time she had found out she had no desire to quit because she had been smoking for so long. After a period of time the emphysema finally killed my aunt and left her husband, two children and many family members behind. These were two stories with different endings that my grandmother will never forget.

Stories like these should make society realize that tobacco is not a personal problem, it is a global problem. Everyone is affected by tobacco smoke, and it is time we all should get the proper education to learn about the dangers of cigarette smoke. More Americans are deciding to quit smoking due to its negative effects on their health, so the tobacco companies must find new ways to market their products. Studies show that most smokers start smoking as teens (80% before the age of 18) and if they dont start then, they will probably never smoke. The tobacco companies know this, so they target these children through advertisements. They also target the women more because women are more likely to be influenced than men are. The third most targeted population is the minority group. Currently in the United States the minorities make-up 5% of our population, this is a lot of people with a lot of money to spend on tobacco products. Tobacco companies spend $700,000 an hour trying to convince people smoking is fun and exciting. These companies need to recruit 5,000 new smokers each day, because 1,000 smokers will die and another 4,000 smokers quit each day. There are a lot of different methods that these advertisements companies use such as using good looking models to make smoking look fun and exciting.

They put ads in magazines and on billboards, they sponsor car races, rodeos, and sporting events to make smoking look like winners. They use cartoon characters so young people will recognize their brands and they also try to use free stuff coupons so you buy more cigarettes. With all this advertisement how can we prevent our children from smoking? The Federal Government along with state and local government have started their war with these tobacco companies.

They are trying to educate students on the dangers of smoking, through health educators and programs such as D.A.R.E. They have also used the same advertising techniques as tobacco companies, with their own anti-smoking campaign. Except they make smoking look terrible and show that to be a real winner you dont need to smoke. What about all these people who are currently addicted and want to quit smoking, what are we to do as health professionals? Numbers show there is a high percentage of American adults that want to quit smoking but just cant.

Like other addictive behaviors, tobacco use is difficult to stop and maintain, particularly if acting alone. The best success in quitting has been noted with comprehensive programs that may combine various strategies including education, peer support, behavior recognition, behavior modification methods, recognition of potential relapse situations, and strategies for confronting such situations.

Medications that are nicotine substitutes, such as transdermal nicotine or nicotine chewing gum may be used but their effectiveness ranges between 5%-40%.

There are also alternative methods such as hypnosis, acupuncture, or even cold turkey. Anyone of these methods can work with the proper support and total mindset upon quitting. The benefits of quitting are almost instant. Within 0 minutes blood pressure and pulse rate drop, body temperature of extremities increase to normal. Within 8 hours, risk of sudden heart attack decreases. After

48 hours nerve endings begin to regenerate and sense of smell and taste begin to return to normal. Betweenweeks andmonths of quitting, circulation improves and walking becomes easier. Lung function increases up to 0%. These benefits will increase the longer the person has not smoked. Given all the dangers of cigarette smoking it is not surprising that many states have taken legal action to protect non-smokers from secondhand smoke. More than 40 states and at least

480 communities have passed legislation to restrict smoking in public places. A majority of companies now have smoking policies that restrict or ban smoking in the workplace. We spend somebillion a year on medical care related to smoking, and lost productivity exceeds another 4 billion a year. As of 186 smokeless tobacco commercials were banned from TV and radio. As of 187 smokeless tobacco companies were required to have warning labels on them. The second interview I had conducted was with the Chief of City 1 Tobacco Control

Office, person 1. He told me about all the consequences and adverse effects that tobacco will produce, but more importantly we talked about what this city is doing to stop tobacco use among the people who live here. The citys first requirement is that all tobacco sellers need to have a tobacco permit, this allows the city to monitor the tobacco in the city. This also allows the tobacco control office to set up a database for compliance checks. These compliance checks will test stores for sale to minors and for signage in the stores. They have also created a new ordinance that will ban smoking in all restaurants, effective July 1, . They also work in conjunction with the D.A.R.E. program to educate children on the dangers of tobacco. These programs and ordinances work together to slow down tobacco use in this city. I have stated facts and figures on tobacco and the society it affects. This is a problem that people on all levels need to address. The government needs to put an end to tobacco companies.

Cities and states need to ban smoking in all public places to keep those who do not smoke healthy. Most importantly parents and all adults need to show children that smoking is dangerous, by not smoking ourselves. By everyone doing a little something to help this alleviate problem we can make our environment a much healthier place to live. There are billions of dollars invested in health care cessation programs, education, and prevention. Tobacco affects everyone; even if you do not smoke, all taxpayers are being affected and do not even realize it.

People are dying everyday from a drug that if not so socially and financially acceptable would be banned by now. Everyone has a reason to help in this cause whether it is global warming, pollution, taxes, or pain and suffering. Our society has been kept in the dark to long, and it is time we all fight to take back what is ours HEALTH.

Please note that this sample paper on Baccer is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Baccer, we are here to assist you.Your cheap custom college paper on Baccer will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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